COMMUNICATION STUDIES....element of communication

The Communication Process & The Elements of Communication

Systematic=Step by Step=Process

Communication as a Process
Human communication is interpersonal, it is purposive and it is a process.
Question: What do we mean by process?
Answer: By process we mean that steps have to be taken and in a set/particular order to achieve a desired result/goal. These are the important elements of the communication process:

1. SENDER/ENCODER
The sender also known as the encoder decides on the message to be sent, the best/most effective way that it can be sent. All of this is done bearing the receiver in mind. In a word, it is his/her job to conceptualize.
The sender may want to ask him/herself questions like: What words will I use? Do I need signs or pictures?

2. MEDIUM
The medium is the immediate form which a message takes. For example, a message may be communicated in the form of a letter, in the form of an email or face to face in the form of a speech.

3. CHANNEL
The channel is that which is responsible for the delivery of the chosen message form. For example post office, internet, radio.

4. RECEIVER
The receiver or the decoder is responsible for extracting/decoding meaning from the message. The receiver is also responsible for providing feedback to the sender. In a word, it is his/her job to INTERPRET.

5. FEEDBACK
This is important as it determines whether or not the decoder grasped the intended meaning and whether communication was successful.

6. CONTEXT
Communication does not take place in a vacuum. The context of any communication act is the environment surrounding it. This includes, among other things, place, time, event, and attitudes of sender and receiver.

7. NOISE (also called interference)
This is any factor that inhibits the conveyance of a message. That is, anything that gets in the way of the message being accurately received, interpreted and responded to. Noise may be internal or external. A student worrying about an incomplete assignment may not be attentive in class (internal noise) or the sounds of heavy rain on a galvanized roof may inhibit the reading of a storybook to second graders (external noise).
The communication process is dynamic, continuous, irreversible, and contextual. It is not possible to participate in any element of the process without acknowledging the existence and functioning of the other elements.

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COMPUTER STUDY microsoft Excel Functions

                                                  

Excel Functions

You can use Excel functions to perform mathematical calculations. This Microsoft Excel tutorial teaches you how to create and use Excel functions. It takes you step-by-step through the process.

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Table of Contents

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Lesson 3: Creating Excel Functions, Filling Cells, and Printing

By using functions, you can quickly and easily make many useful calculations, such as finding an average, the highest number, the lowest number, and a count of the number of items in a list. Microsoft Excel has many functions that you can use.

Using Reference Operators

To use functions, you need to understand reference operators. Reference operators refer to a cell or a group of cells. There are two types of reference operators: range  andunion.
A range reference refers to all the cells between and including the reference. A range reference consists of two cell addresses separated by a colon. The reference A1:A3 includes cells A1, A2, and A3. The reference A1:C3 includes cells A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, and C3.
A union reference includes two or more references. A union reference consists of two or more numbers, range references, or cell addresses separated by a comma. The reference A7,B8:B10,C9,10 refers to cells A7, B8 to B10, C9 and the number 10.

Understanding Functions

Functions are prewritten formulas. Functions differ from regular formulas in that you supply the value but not the operators, such as +, -, *, or /. For example, you can use the SUM function to add. When using a function, remember the following:

Use an equal sign to begin a formula.
Specify the function name.
Enclose arguments within parentheses. Arguments are values on which you want to perform the calculation. For example, arguments specify the numbers or cells you want to add.
Use a comma to separate arguments.

Here is an example of a function:

=SUM(2,13,A1,B2:C7)

In this function:

The equal sign begins the function.
SUM is the name of the function.
2, 13, A1, and B2:C7 are the arguments.
Parentheses enclose the arguments.
Commas separate the arguments.

After you type the first letter of a function name, the AutoComplete list appears. You can double-click on an item in the AutoComplete list to complete your entry quickly. Excel will complete the function name and enter the first parenthesis.

EXERCISE 1

Functions

The SUM function adds argument values.

1. Open Microsoft Excel.
2. Type 12 in cell B1.
3. Press Enter.
4. Type 27 in cell B2.
5. Press Enter.
6. Type 24 in cell B3.
7. Press Enter.
8. Type =SUM(B1:B3) in cell A4.
9. Press Enter. The sum of cells B1 to B3, which is 63, appears.

Alternate Method: Enter a Function with the Ribbon

1. Type 150 in cell C1.
2. Press Enter.
3. Type 85 in cell C2.
4. Press Enter.
5. Type 65 in cell C3.
6. Choose the Formulas tab.
7. Click the Insert Function button. The Insert Function dialog box appears.
8. Choose Math & Trig in the Or Select A Category box.
9. Click Sum in the Select A Function box.
10. Click OK. The Function Arguments dialog box appears.

12. Type C1:C3 in the Number1 field, if it does not automatically appear.
13. Click OK. The sum of cells C1 to C3, which is 300, appears.

Format worksheet

1. Move to cell A4.
2. Type the word Sum.
3. Select cells B4 to C4.
4. Choose the Home tab.
5. Click the down arrow next to the Borders button .
6. Click Top and Double Bottom Border.

As you learned in Lesson 2, you can also calculate a sum by using the AutoSum button .

Calculate an Average

You can use the AVERAGE function to calculate the average of a series of numbers.

1. Move to cell A6.
2. Type Average. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B6.
3. Type =AVERAGE(B1:B3).
4. Press Enter. The average of cells B1 to B3, which is 21, appears.

Calculate an Average with the AutoSum Button

In Microsoft Excel, you can use the AutoSum button  to calculate an average.

1. Move to cell C6.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the AutoSum button .
4. Click Average.

5. Select cells C1 to C3.
6. Press Enter. The average of cells C1 to C3, which is 100, appears.

Find the Lowest Number

You can use the MIN function to find the lowest number in a series of numbers.

1. Move to cell A7.
2. Type Min.
3. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B7.
4. Type = MIN(B1:B3).
5. Press Enter. The lowest number in the series, which is 12, appears.

Note: You can also use the drop-down button next to the AutoSum button  to calculate minimums, maximums, and counts.

Find the Highest Number

You can use the MAX function to find the highest number in a series of numbers.

.

1. Move to cell A8.
2. Type Max.
3. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B8.
4. Type = MAX(B1:B3).
5. Press Enter. The highest number in the series, which is 27, appears.

Count the Numbers in a Series of Numbers

You can use the count function to count the number of numbers in a series.

1. Move to cell A9.
2. Type Count.
3. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B9.
4. Choose the Home tab.
5. Click the down arrow next to the AutoSum button .
6. Click Count Numbers. Excel places the count function in cell C9 and takes a guess at which cells you want to count. The guess is incorrect, so you must select the proper cells.

7. Select B1 to B3.
8. Press Enter. The number of items in the series, which is 3, appears.

Fill Cells Automatically

You can use Microsoft Excel to fill cells automatically with a series. For example, you can have Excel automatically fill your worksheet with days of the week, months of the year, years, or other types of series.

EXERCISE 2

Fill Cells Automatically

The following demonstrates filling the days of the week:

1. Click the Sheet2 tab. Excel moves to Sheet2.
2. Move to cell A1.
3. Type Sun.
4. Move to cell B1.
5. Type Sunday.
6. Select cells A1 to B1.
7. Choose the Home tab.
8. Click the Bold button . Excel bolds cells A1 to B1.
9. Find the small black square in the lower-right corner of the selected area. The small black square is called the fill handle.
10. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to fill cells A1 to B14. Note how the days of the week fill the cells in a series. Also, note that the Auto Fill Options button appears.

Copy Cells

1. Click the Auto Fill Options button. The Auto Fill Options menu appears.
2. Choose the Copy Cells radio button. The entry in cells A1 and B1 are copied to all the highlighted cells.
3. Click the Auto Fill Options button again.
4. Choose the Fill Series radio button. The cells fill as a series from Sunday to Saturday again.
5. Click the Auto Fill Options button again.
6. Choose the Fill Without Formatting radio button. The cells fill as a series from Sunday to Saturday, but the entries are not bolded.
7. Click the Auto Fill Options button again.
8. Choose the Fill Weekdays radio button. The cells fill as a series from Monday to Friday.

Adjust Column Width

Some of the entries in column B are too long to fit in the column. You can quickly adjust the column width to fit the longest entry.

1. Move your mouse pointer over the line that separates column B and C. The Width Indicator appears.

2. Double-click. The Column adjusts to fit the longest entry.

After you complete the remainder of the exercise, your worksheet will look like the one shown here.

Fill Times

The following demonstrates filling time:

1. Type 1:00 into cell C1.
2. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to highlight cells C1 to C14. Note that each cell fills, using military time.
3. Press Esc and then click anywhere on the worksheet to remove the highlighting.

To change the format of the time:

1. Select cells C1 to C14.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the number format box . A menu appears.
4. Click Time. Excel changes the format of the time.

Fill Numbers

You can also fill numbers.
Type a 1 in cell D1.

1. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to highlight cells D1 to D14. The number 1 fills each cell.
2. Click the Auto Fill Options button.
3. Choose the Fill Series radio button. The cells fill as a series, starting with 1, 2, 3.

Here is another interesting fill feature.

1. Go to cell E1.
2. Type Lesson 1.
3. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to highlight cells E1 to E14. The cells fill in as a series: Lesson 1, Lesson 2, Lesson 3, and so on.

Create Headers and Footers

You can use the Header & Footer button on the Insert tab to create headers and footers. A header is text that appears at the top of every page of your printed worksheet. A footer is text that appears at the bottom of every page of your printed worksheet. When you click the Header & Footer button, the Design context tab appears and Excel changes to Page Layout view. A context tab is a tab that only appears when you need it. Page Layout view structures your worksheet so that you can easily change the format of your document. You usually work in Normal view.
You can type in your header or footer or you can use predefined headers and footers. To find predefined headers and footers, click the Header or Footer button or use the Header & Footer Elements group's buttons. When you choose a header or footer by clicking the Header or Footer button, Excel centers your choice. The table shown here describes each of the Header & Footer Elements group button options.

Header & Footer Elements
Button	Purpose
Page Number	Inserts the page number.
Number of Pages	Inserts the number of pages in the document.
Current Time	Inserts the current time.
File Path	Inserts the path to the document.
File Name	Inserts the file name.
Sheet Name	Inserts the name of the worksheet.
Picture	Enables you to insert a picture.

Both the header and footer areas are divided into three sections: left, right, and center. When you choose a Header or Footer from the Header & Footer Elements group, where you place your information determines whether it appears on the left, right, or center of the printed page. You use the Go To Header and Go To Footer buttons on the Design tab to move between the header and footer areas of your worksheet.

EXERCISE 3

Insert Headers and Footers

1. Choose the Insert tab.
2. Click the Header & Footer button in the Text group. Your worksheet changes to Page Layout view and the Design context tab appears. Note that your cursor is located in the center section of the header area.

3. Click the right side of the header area.
4. Click Page Number in the Header & Footer Elements group. When you print your document, Excel will place the page number in the upper-right corner.
5. Click the left side of the Header area.
6. Type your name. When you print your document, Excel will place your name in the upper-left corner.
7. Click the Go To Footer button. Excel moves to the footer area.

8. Click the Footer button. A menu appears.
9. Click the path to your document. Excel will place the path to your document at the bottom of every printed page.

Return to Normal View

To return to Normal view:

1. Choose the View tab.
2. Click the Normal button in the Workbook Views group.

Set Print Options

There are many print options. You set print options on the Page Layout tab. Among other things, you can set your margins, set your page orientation, and select your paper size.
Margins define the amount of white space that appears on the top, bottom, left, and right edges of your document. The Margin option on the Page Layout tab provides several standard margin sizes from which you can choose.
There are two page orientations: portrait and landscape. Paper, such as paper sized 8 1/2 by 11, is longer on one edge than it is on the other. If you print in Portrait, the shortest edge of the paper becomes the top of the page. Portrait is the default option. If you print in Landscape, the longest edge of the paper becomes the top of the page.

Portrait

Landscape

Paper comes in a variety of sizes. Most business correspondence uses 8 1/2 by 11 paper, which is the default page size in Excel. If you are not using 8 1/2 by 11 paper, you can use the Size option on the Page Layout tab to change the Size setting.

EXERCISE 4

Set the Page Layout

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.
2. Click Margins in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Wide. Word sets your margins to the Wide settings.

Set the Page Orientation

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.
2. Click Orientation in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Landscape. Excel sets your page orientation to landscape.

Set the Paper Size

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.
2. Click Size in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click the paper size you are using. Excel sets your page size.

Print

The simplest way to print is to click the Office button, highlight Print on the menu that appears, and then click Quick Print in the Preview and Print the Document pane. Dotted lines appear on your screen, and your document prints. The dotted lines indicate the right, left, top, and bottom edges of your printed pages.
You can also use the Print Preview option to print. When using Print Preview, you can see onscreen how your printed document will look when you print it. If you click the Page Setup button while in Print Preview mode, you can set page settings such as centering your data on the page.
If your document is several pages long, you can use the Next Page and Previous Page buttons to move forward and backward through your document. If you check the Show Margins check box, you will see margin lines on your document. You can click and drag the margin markers to increase or decrease the size of your margins. To return to Excel, click the Close Print Preview button.
You click the Print button when you are ready to print. The Print dialog box appears. You can choose to print the entire worksheet or specific pages. If you want to print specific pages, enter the page numbers in the From and To fields. You can enter the number of copies you want to print in the Number of Copies field.

EXERCISE 5

Open Print Preview

1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.
2. Highlight Print. The Preview and Print The Document pane appears.
3. Click Print Preview. The Print Preview window appears, with your document in the center.

Center Your Document

1. Click the Page Setup button in the Print group. The Page Setup dialog box appears.
2. Choose the Margins tab.
3. Click the Horizontally check box. Excel centers your data horizontally.
4. Click the Vertically check box. Excel centers your data vertically.
5. Click OK. The Page Setup dialog box closes.

Print

1. Click the Print button. The Print dialog box appears.
2. Click the down arrow next to the name field and select the printer to which you want to print.
3. Click OK. Excel sends your worksheet to the printer.

This is the end of Lesson 3. You can save and close your file.

              

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COMPUTER STUDY....Paint Shop Pro Tutorial

Paint Shop Pro Tutorial

These tutorials are based on Paint Shop Pro Version 6, a graphics software package.The emphasis is on creating graphics for the Web. This series of Paint Shop Pro tutorials is based on the concept that most people learn by doing. If you have never used a graphics package before, you'll find that there are many new terms to learn, so we provide an introduction to several Paint Shop Pro topics. The meat of these tutorials is, however, the exercises and the sections on how to produce specific effects. We take you step-by-step through producing each effect. We hope you enjoy these tutorials.

GETTING STARTED WITH PAINT SHOP PRO 

Conventions

CREATING A NEW IMAGE 
THE PAINT SHOP PRO TOOL PALETTE
WORKING WITH COLOR

The Color Panel
The Color Dialog Box
Selecting Color from an Image
The Color Palette
Recent Colors Dialog Box 

Exercises:
The Color Panel
Recent Colors Dialog Box
The Color Dialog Box
Selecting Color from an Image

SELECTING 

The Tool Options Dialog Box

Exercises:
The Selection Tool
The Freehand Tool
The Magic Wand
Feathering 

PAINT SHOP PRO PAINTING TOOLS 
THE PAINT SHOP PRO PAINT BRUSH TOOL 

Painting a Straight Line
Freehand Painting
The Tool Options Dialog Box 

Exercises:
The Paint Brush
Brush Shape
Brush Size
Brush Hardness

THE PAINT BRUSH -- PART TWO

Opacity
Step
Density
Paper Texture
Custom Brushes

THE CLONE BRUSH

Cloning - Aligned
Cloning - Non-Aligned
Cloning - Dragging Your Pointer

THE COLOR REPLACER TOOL 

Color Replacement 

THE ERASER

Erasing on the Background Layer
Erasing on a Layer 

PAINT SHOP PRO PICTURE TUBES

Old Cars
Music

THE FLOOD FILL TOOL 

Flood Fill -- Solid Color
Flood Fill -- Linear Gradient
Flood Fill -- Pattern
Flood Fill -- Blend Mode

PAINT SHOP PRO LAYERS

Exercises:
Background Layer -- Colored Background
Transparent Background
Working with Layers
Moving a Layer 
Layer: Blend Modes 

THE PAINT SHOP PRO PRESET SHAPES TOOL

Exercises:
Stroked Raster 
Filled Vector
Stroked and Filled Vector 

THE PAINT SHOP PRO DRAW TOOL 

Exercises:
Single Line
Bezier Curve
Freehand Line  

THE PAINT SHOP PRO TEXT TOOL 

Exercises:
Kerning
Leading
Selection
Floating Text
Floating Text on a Path Vector Text on a Path

THE PAINT SHOP PRO DEFORMATION TOOL 

Exercises:
Deformation -- Vector Object
Deformation -- Raster Layer 

PAINT SHOP PRO MASKS 

Exercises: 
A Sharp Edge Mask
A Specific Mask
Fading Effect

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COMPUTER STUDY..........Microsoft PowerPoint 2007

Microsoft PowerPoint 2007  

By Denise Etheridge

With Microsoft PowerPoint, you can create exciting slide show presentations. This PowerPoint tutorial will teach you how. Click here to start. If you are using PowerPoint 2002, click here for our PowerPoint 2002 tutorial.

Lesson 1: The PowerPoint Window

PowerPoint is a presentation software package. With PowerPoint, you can easily create slide shows. Trainers and other presenters use slide shows to illustrate their presentations. This tutorial teaches PowerPoint basics. This lesson introduces you to the PowerPoint window. You use the window to interact with PowerPoint.

• The Microsoft Office Button
• The Quick Access Toolbar
• The Title Bar
• The Ribbon
• Rulers
• Slides, Placeholders, and Notes
• Status Bar, Tabs, View Buttons, and More

Lesson 2: Creating Your First PowerPoint Presentation

You create your PowerPoint presentation on slides. You use layouts to organize the content on each slide. PowerPoint has several slide layouts from which to choose. Themes are sets of colors, fonts, and special effects. Backgrounds add a colored background to your slides. You can add themes and backgrounds to your slides. After you complete your slides, you can run your presentation. In this lesson you learn how to create slides, makes changes to slides, apply a theme and run a slide show.

• Create a Title Slide
• Create New Slides
• Make Changes to Your Slides
• Apply a Theme
• Run Your PowerPoint Slide Show

Lesson 3: Animations, Transitions, Spell Check, Outline Tab, Slides Tabs, Sorter View, and Printing

Animations control how objects move onto, off of, and around your slides. Transitions control how your presentation moves from one slide to the next. In this lesson you learn how to create animations and transitions. You also learn how to spell-check your document, how to use the Outline and Slides tabs, how to use Sorter view, and how to print.

• Add Animations
• Add Transitions
• Spell Check
• Use the Outline and Slides Tabs
• Use Slide Sorter View
• Print

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Over Population IN EAST AFRICA

POPULATION OF EAST AFRICA

Population Growth

Population Growth rate refers to the rate at which population changes by increasing in size.

It is calculated as;

Birth rate – Death rate divide by 1000 X 100.

Birth rate should always be higher than death rate in order for population to increase.

Population growth rate (PGR) = Birth rate – Death rate X 100
                                                                          1000   

For example, assessing the birth rate of Tanzania to be 48% per annum and its death rate 12% per annum, calculate the population growth rate? 

PGR     =          48 – 12    X 100   =       3.6%
                           1000            

Factors which lead to High Population Growth Rate in East Africa

• Early marriages.

• High fertility rates.

• Polygamy.

• Low levels of education.

• Lack of family planning facilities.

• Excessive birth rates over death rate.

• Declining death rate due to improved medical facilities.

• Rural – urban population.

• Value the parents attach to their children.

• Level of income.
  
  
  
  Over Population
  Over population refers to a situation where a country’s resources are not adequate to provide the necessary means of survival to its people. The resources are over utilised in order for the people to survive.
  Population migration
  In East Africa people are always moving from time to time. This affects the nature of the population distribution. There are a number of factors why people migrate. These include; 
  • Economic reasons
  • Political   reasons
  • Cultural   reasons
  • Social  reasons
  Migration can be for a short time and for a long time. It can be internal and external or international.   
  Reasons for migration
  
  
  • Unemployed people move from the rural to the urban centres in search for employment opportunities.
  • Cultivators migrate in search for good land for farming (agriculture) purpose.
  • Traders move in search for trade opportunities.
  • In northern Uganda people are frequently moving because of political instabilities etc.   
  
  

  Census

  Questions
  1. What is a census?
  2. Have you ever participated in a census?
  3. If so, what questions were you asked?
  4. What is the importance of carrying out a population census?
  5. What are the attitudes of people towards census exercises?
  A Census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official counting of a particular population.
   10. POPULATION CENSUS
  This is the counting of people in a given area.
  WHY IT IS CARRIED OUT (IMPORTANCE)
  • To establish the number of people in the country in terms of Age, Sex distribution, level of education, standards of living.
  • To enable the government distribute the resources according to the prevailing population in the area. That is, government plans on how to adequately allocate the resources.
  • To find out the relationship between the prevailing population and their conditions of living for example housing facilities, levels of income, levels of employment.
  • To help the government design a sound policy on population; in terms of birth rates, migration and distribution of resources.
  WHAT TO CONSIDER
  • Age
  • Sex
  • Level of education
  • Occupation
  • Standards of living
  • Mode of transport
  • Etc.
  
  11. LIFE EXPECTANCY
  Life expectancy is the average age at which people die. Life expectancy is very low in the developing countries and high in the developed countries.
  • Optimum population.Optimum population refers to a situation where the number of people is in balance with the available resources. This means that;  
  • Optimum conditions can only be maintained if the exploitation of new resources and development of employment opportunities keeps in pace with the increasing rate of population.
  • The size, distribution and structure of the population within a country must be viewed in relation to its natural resources.
  • If the country’s resources are not adequately supporting its population, then people are likely to be poor, dependant and hungry. A higher rate of unemployment is also an indicator.
  Where a country has gone beyond the optimum population level, there is likely to be a  problem of over population.
  
  

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POPULATION OF EAST AFRICA

POPULATION OF EAST AFRICA

Population Density

Population density describes the number of people per square kilometer of land area.

It is calculated as;
      PD                       =          POPULATION (P)
                                                AREA (A)

ACTIVITY 1: - Warm up / Brain Storming

Ask learners to brainstorm on the following terms;

• Population
• Population census
• Population distribution
• Population density
• Under population
• Over population
• Birth rate
• Growth rate
• Death rate

TABLE 1B: POPULATION DENSITY OF EAST AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Country	Total area (km2)	Total Population 2008	Population density
Uganda	244,400	31,367,972	.......................
Kenya	585,000	37,958,838	.......................
Tanzania	943,000	40,212,612	.......................
Total	1772,400	......................	.......................

Source: Population Reference Bureau (2006)
ACTIVITY 2:

In groups of 5 – 8, study the Table 1B above and answer the following questions

• Which of East African country has the;
• Largest population.
• Least population.

• Calculate the population size of East Africa.

• How is high population an advantage to any one country of East Africa.

• What are disadvantages of high population size to any one country of east Africa?

• To which extent may low population be of advantage to your country?

ACTIVITY 3

Given the formula:

            Population Density     =         Total Population
                                                                        Area

• Use the Table 1B above to calculate the population density of
• Uganda
• Kenya
• Tanzania

• Which of the three countries has the
• Lowest population density?
• Highest population density?

• What could be the major cause of the differences in the population densities?

ACTIVITY 4

Study the sketch map below showing the population distribution of East Africa and answer the following questions

  

This would also be considered a group task

• Using the sketch map provided above, which areas of East Africa are:
• Densely populated
• Sparsely populated

• Why do you think that these areas are;
• Densely populated?
• Sparsely populated?

• What challenges do the people living in those areas mentioned in question (b) above face?

• Suppose a population officer, suggest ways in which you would overcome those challenges

ACTIVITY 5

Study Table 2 below showing population figures in Uganda between 1990 –2001 and answer the questions below.

YEAR	POPULATION (000)
-1991	16.000
1992 - 1993	16.500
1994 - 1995	17,000
1996 - 1997	18,000
1998 - 1999	19,500
2000 - 2001	23,000

 (i) Draw a line graph to show the above information.

 (ii) Describe the trend of population growth in Uganda between 1990  to 2001.

 (iii) State the causes for an increase in population between 1990 –2001.

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FIRST AID PROCEDURES

FIRST AID PROCEDURES Introduction  Quite often, attempts to assist a patient by individuals that lack the knowledge of appropriate first aid procedures may instead hurt the victim. Teachers in schools, by nature of their work, interact with many students and come across life threatening situations. This module is designed to provide guidance for emergency situations. The purpose of first aid is to make a patient secure and comfortable and to prevent deterioration in his /her condition until any necessary professional medical assistance is available. It is helpful if all teachers particularly those that teach science have a simple but adequate knowledge of first aid. It critical that a teacher should be able to recognise a situation which needs professional medical attention and be able to take appropriate action in those situations where delays could be fatal. TOP PRIORITY When an injured person is not breathing, artificial respiration must be started at once. All teachers and pupils should be able to undertake some form of respiratory resuscitation e.g. Kiss of life technique. (Such skills are of great value in the community generally as well as school environment). Other Conditions Requiring Immediate Attention: Severe bleeding Minor cuts Eye injuries Shock Burning /scalding Severe burns by chemicalS Attacks e.g. Epilepsy, Hypersensitivity, colour blindness, haemophilia etc Heart attack Stroke Fainting Poisoning Snake bites Swimming safety tips 1. SEVERE BLEEDING is recognised by a spurting flow of bright red blood.First aid-  This can be restricted by applying direct pressure at an appropriate point on an artery between wound and the heart. - Teachers should be aware of those pressure points where the flow of blood may be stopped by compressing an artery on to the underlying bone. - An injured person should not be given any thing to drink unless it is essential       Action A thick pad of cloth held between the hand and wound would help to control the  bleeding by absorbing the blood and allowing it to clot. Do not disturb blood clots after they have formed within the cloth. If blood soaks through the entire pad without clotting, do not remove the pad, but add additional thick layers of cloth and continue the direct hand pressure even more firmly. On most parts of the body, a pressure bandage can be placed to hold pads of cloth over a severely bleeding open wound and free the hands of the first-aider for other emergency action. 2. MINOR CUTS should be washed thoroughly with water and a suitable sterile dressing applied. Antiseptics should not be applied and the injured person should be taken to or advised to consult a Doctor for an anti-tetanus injection. 3. EYE INJURIES should always be regarded as potentially serious. First aid If corrosive materials have been splashed into the eye, the eye should be held open and washed with plentiful amounts of water. IT Is easier to do this if a laboratory tap is fitted with a short length of rubber tubing so that a stream of water may be directed at the eye. In cases of foreign body on the surface of the eyeball or inner surface of the eyelid pull down the lower lid to determine whether or not the object lies on the inner surface. If the object lies on the inner surface, lift it gently with the corner of a clean handkerchief or paper tissue. Never use dry cotton around the eye. If the object has not been located, it may be lodged beneath the upper lid. While the victim looks down, grasp the lashes of the upper lid gently. Pull the upper lid forward and down over the lower lid. Tears may dislodge the foreign object. If the foreign object has not been dislodged, depress the victim's upper lid with a matchstick or similar object placed horizontally on the top of the cartilage and avert (change) the lid, by pulling upward on the lashes against the matchstick. Lift off the foreign object with the corner of a clean handkerchief and replace the lid by pulling downward gently on the lashes. Flush the eye with water. If the object is still not removed and is suspected to be embedded, apply a dry, protective dressing and consult a physician/doctor. - A person with corrosive materials in his eye will be in acute pain and considerable physical force may be necessary before it is possible to treat the eye with water. All injuries should be referred to a doctor. - The wearing of safety spectacles by pupils is an obvious precaution against eye injury and should always be considered whenever any operation with chemicals is performed; goggles must be worn whether in chemistry, biology, physics, home economics and craft lessons. Goggles can resist the impact of corrosive materials by preventing their direct contact with the eye. Penetrating injuries of the eyePenetrating injuries of the eye are extremely serious and can result in blindness. First aid Do not try to remove an object stuck into the eye - it is important to get the patient to hospital! Cover both eyes with a sterile or clean dressing, secured with tape or a bandage that encircles the victim's head but loose enough to avoid pressure on the eyes. Coverage of both eyes is necessary to eliminate movement of the affected area. Keep the victim quiet, preferably on his back. Transport the victim by stretcher. Call an eye specialist, or take the victim to the nearest appropriate hospital emergency room. The sooner he receives medical care, the greater the chances of saving his sight. 4. SHOCK may be recognised by faintness, giddiness, blurred vision, collapse, pallor clammy (paleness sweaty) or cold skin or breaking into a sweat and anxiety. Shock can be a serious and even fatal; condition and it requires prompt attention. First aid The patient should be laid down and if possible the feet raised slightly higher than the head. Reassurance is essential and the patient's anxiety should as far as possible be allayed (calm). Cover him to keep him from losing body heat.  In cases of severe shock medical advice is essential.                                                                Patients in a state of shock should not be moved unnecessarily nor should they be kept unduly warm. 5. BURNING OR SCALDING: The objective of first aid for burns is to relieve pain and prevent contamination. First aid Chemical burns should be washed with copious (plentiful) amounts of water and no attempt should be made to carry out neutralisation reactions on the skin. Some substances like phosphorus and bromine cause severe burns and medical advice must be sought as a matter of urgency. Cooling the injured areas as rapidly as possible using running water or ice packs (ice from refrigerator) should treat small burns. A suitable sterile dressing should be applied but lotions, spray, ointments and oily dressings should be avoided. If the arms or legs are affected, keep them elevated. Do not remove adhered particles of charred (burnt/residue) clothing. Have victims with face burns sit up or prop them up and keep them under continuous observation for breathing difficulty. If respiration problems develop, the victim must be maintained in an open space for enough airation. Arrange transportation to the hospital as quickly as possible. If a person's clothing is on fire First aid It is imperative that the victim is put into a horizontal position immediately. This will limit the spread of the injury. The burning clothing should be extinguished by water or by means of a fire blanket. If more than 10 percent of the body surface is burnt the injury should be regarded as very severe and arrangements must be made to get the injured person to hospital as an emergency. 6. POISONING BY INGESTION: The most common causes are inadequate operation of a mouth pipette or drinking the contents of a bottle by error/mistake. Where known poisons are used e.g. ethanedioates (oxalates), acids, preventive measures are essential but it is wise safeguard to have access to a suitable antidote. First aid Dilute the poison by having the victim drink a glass of water or milk if he is conscious and not having convulsions (symptoms). Discontinue giving the victim water if it makes him disgusted.  Save the label or container of the suspected poison for identification. If the victim vomits, save a sample of the vomited materials for analysis. Seek medical assistance by calling the poison control centre or a physician. If the victim becomes unconscious, keep him in an open space. Give artificial respiration or call an emergency squad as soon as possible. Do not induce vomiting in an unconscious person. If the victim is vomiting, position him and turn his head so that the material drains out of the mouth. 7. EPILEPSY        Epileptic attack can be a frightening experience especially to anyone who has not seen it before. Its characterised by repeated convulsions and seizures. First aid The first requirement is to prevent the victim from causing himself/herself injury. Convulsive movements should not be restrained but a victim should be prevented from knocking into hard objects like desks or stools. When the convulsions subside, cradle the patient's head in the arms and loosen any tight clothing around the neck. Do not insert a ruler or other hard object into the victim's mouth during the attack, although if an opportunity arises, the corner of a clean, folded handkerchief may be inserted between the teeth to prevent the tongue and lips from being bitten, such biting is relatively rare and recovery from an epileptic fit is normally rapid. Keep the victim lying down in an open space. If breathing stops give artificial respiration. If convulsions take over few minutes a doctor should be called. After an epileptic fit, the victim should take some rest at an appropriate point and his parents should be informed. However, such cases should be treated individually as each person will often have his own pattern of fits. It should be noted that pupils suffering from some forms of epilepsy may be following a prescribed course of drugs and that these drugs may be brought legitimately to school so that they can be taken at a proper time. Students that are suffering from epilepsy condition should be treated with care and kindness. It should be also emphasised that attacks or accidents within a school usually provides somewhat fewer problems than the attacks or accidents which occurs on a field trip or expedition, therefore adequate preparations for out of school activities must recognise this fact and must include an appropriate procedure to be followed in the case of injury to a teacher. 8. HEART ATTACK It usually involves a clot in one of the blood vessels that supply the heart. First aid Place the victim in a comfortable position, usually sitting up, particularly if there is shortness of breath, although his comfort is a good guide, use as many pillows as needed. Provide ventilation and guard against drafts and cold. If the victim is not breathing, begin artificial respiration. Have someone call for an ambulance equipped with oxygen and have the victim's own doctor notified. Do not give liquids to an unconscious victim. Since transportation tosses added strain upon the victim, do not attempt to transport him until you get medical advice, if available within a reasonable time. If the victim has been under medical care, help him with his prescribed medicine. 9. STROKE (apoplexy) usually involves a spontaneous rupture of a blood vessel in the brain or formation of a clot that interferes with circulation. Major signs include loss of bladder and bowel control, pupils of the eyes unequal in size, lack of ability to talk, unconsciousness, paralysis and difficulty in breathing and in swallowing. First aid Provide moderate covering Maintain an open airwaY Give artificial respiration if indicated Position the victim on his side so that secretions will drain from the side of the mouth. Call a doctor for medical advice as quickly as possible Do not give fluids unless the victim is fully conscious and able to swallow and unless medical care will be delayed for along time. 10. FAINTING is a partial or complete loss of consciousness due to a reduced supply of blood to the brain for a short time. A person collapses suddenly without warning. It Is associated with sweating, coldness of the skin, Dizziness, Nausea, extreme paleness and numbness and tingling of the hands and feet. First aid Leave the victim lying down. Loosen any tight clothing and keep crowds away. If the victim vomits, roll him onto his side or turn his head to the side and, if necessary, wipe out his mouth with your fingers, preferably wrapped in cloth. Maintain an open airway Do not pour water over the victimSs face because of the danger of aspiration (the inhalation of gastric contents into the lower airways); instead bathe his face gently with cool water. Do not give any liquid unless the victim has revived. Examine the victim to determine whether or not he has suffered injury from falling. Unless recovery is prompt, seek medical assistance. 11. SNAKE BITES are always extremely painful, rapid swelling and identified by one or more puncture wounds created by the fangs. First aid is important in order to reduce the circulation of blood through the bitten area, to delay absorption of venom and to prevent aggravation of the local wound and to sustain respiration.First aid Keep the victim from moving around. Keep the victim as calm as possible and preferably in a lying position. Immobilize the bitten extremity and keep it at or below heart level. Take the victim to the hospital. If mild to moderate symptoms develop, apply a constricting band 2 to 4 inches above the bitten area, but not around the head, neck or trunk. The band should be ¾ to 1½ inches wide, not thin like a rubber band. The band should be snug but loose enough for a finger to be slipped underneath. Observe the swelling. Periodically check the pulse in the extremity beyond the bitten area to insure that the blood flow has not stopped. If severe symptoms develop, make a cut and apply suction (usually made of rubber or plastic, that sticks to smooth, nonporous surfaces) immediately. Apply a constricting band, if that has not already been done, and make a cut in the skin through the fang mark (s). Use a sharp, sterilized knife. Cuts should be ½ inch long, extending over the suspected venom deposit point. (Because a snake strikes downward, the deposit point is usually lower than the fang mark). Cuts should be made along the axis of the limb. Do not make cross-cut incisions. Do not make cuts on the head, neck, or trunk. Apply suction with a suction cup (usually made of rubber or plastic that sticks to smooth, nonporous surfaces) for 30minutes. If a suction cup is not available, use the mouth. There is little risk to the rescuer who uses his mouth, but it is recommended that the venom not be swallowed and that the mouth be rinsed out immediately. If the hospital is closed, i.e cannot be reached in 4 or 5 hours, take the following measures: Keep trying to obtain professional care, either by transporting the victim to a place where medical care is available or by using an emergency communications system to obtain medical advice. If no symptoms develop, keep trying to reach the hospital and give the general first aid described in the first 3 steps above. If any symptoms at all develop, apply a constricting band, make cuts, and apply suction (usually made of rubber or plastic, that sticks to smooth, nonporous surfaces) immediately, as described the last steps above                                                                            Several other factors must be considered in cases of snakebite: Shock. Keep the victim lying down and comfortable and maintain his body temperature. Breathing and heart beat. If breathing stops, gives mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If breathing stops and there is no pulse, perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) IF you have been trained to do so. Identifying the snake. If you can kill the snake without risk or delay, bring it to the hospital for identification, but exercise extreme caution in handling the snake. Cleaning the bitten area. You may wash the bitten area with soap and water and blot it dry with sterile gauze. You may apply dressings and bandages, but only for a short period of time. Medicine to relieve pain. Do not give the victim alcohol, sedatives, aspirin, or any medicine containing aspirin. Some painkillers, however, may be given. Consult a doctor or other medical personal for specific medications that may be used. Snake bite kits. Keep a first aid kit accessible for all outings in primitive areas or areas known or suspected to be snake infested. It is recommended that cold compresses, ice, dry ice, chemical ice packs, spray refrigerants, or other methods of cold therapy be used in the first aid treatment of snakebite. 4. SWIMMING SAFETY TIPS Every one should learn how to swim at an early age. Never swim alone, make sure there is someone nearby who can help in case of an emergency. Adjust slowly to cool or cold water, do not force in. Swim at a safe swimming place, preferably one supervised by lifeguards. Beware of unfamiliar swimming areas, since they may have double-crossing currents, deep holes, debris, and other hazards. Do not swim when overheated or overtired or immediately after eating a heavy meal or even a meal of normal size. Before diving, make sure that the water is deep enough and has no hidden objects beneath the surface. Do not dive into a swimming pool without checking first to make sure that the water is deep enough for diving and that there are no swimmers beneath you. Know your own ability and do not overestimate it, judging distance accurately over water is difficult. When swimming underwater, come up to the surface as soon as your chest is tight and you feel that you need air. If you are planning on a distance swim in open water, have someone accompany you with a boat. Be courteous; consider the safety of others. Do not hold anyone or hold his head under water. Do not push anyone into the water. Back to ELATE menu...

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