NATIONALISM IN UGANDA

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN EAST AFRICA

                                        NATIONALISM IN UGANDA

Between 1945 and 1949, several protests and uprisings were organized especially in Uganda’s towns like Kampala. These were mainly in opposition to the monopoly of Asians in the cash crop trade, land alienation among other grievances.
Such action resulted into formation of earlier political associations such:-

1. Bataka party (1946)
2. Abaganda  Abakopi and Uganda African Farmers’ Union (1947)
3. Buganda African Motors Driver Union(BANU)

Although all these parties were silenced one by one by the colonialists, and their leaders arrested, the message of resistance and desire for independence had been expressed already.

The Kabaka crisis of 1953 -55.

Following the British introduction of the idea of the East African Federation Kabaka Mutesa IIdecided to mobilize the Baganda to reject the Federation. He also went ahead to demand for the independence of Buganda alone.

This prompted the British colonial governor Andrew Cohen to deport him into Britain on the 30 Nov 1953.

Causes of the crisis

1. The idea of the East African federation led to the crisis. The Baganda feared that they might loose their land in the federation as had happened in Kenya.
2. Mutesa I‘s failure to cooperate with the colonial administrators encouraged the crisis. According to the 1900 agreement, the Kabaka was expected to work (cooperate) with the colonial administration in areas of tax collection, law and order e.t.c.
3. Mutesa’s demand for Buganda’s independence also led to the crisis.
4. Kabaka Mutesa’s desire to adjust some terms of the Buganda agreement led to the crisis. Kabaka hated the clauses that limited his authority in Buganda.
5. The rising sense of superiority among the Baganda encouraged the crisis under Mutesa I. Buganda increasingly proud of themselves that decided to reduce cooperation with the colonialist.
6. Withdraw of support from the Kabaka by the Lukiiko also encouraged the crisis.
7. The transfer by the colonial governor of the nomination of Buganda’s representatives to the Legico (Legislative council). This decision to give powers to the Lukiiko to nominate representative to the legico provoked Mutesa II much.
8. The religious conflicts with in Buganda also increased the tension. The Catholics conflicted with the Protestants and Christians combined against Muslims. This drew in the colonial administration to take sides.
9. The new political parties such as Uganda National congress (1952) violently opposed the East Africa Federation idea. This further promoted the government to exile the king.
10. 
    

Effects of the 1953 Kabaka crisis.

1. Created a sense of unity among the Baganda as they combined efforts to demand for the return and restoration of Kabaka Mutesa II.
2. Led to the signing of the Namirembe agreement. This cleared way for the return of the Kabaka while also reducing the king’s powers more.
3. Demonstrations were carried out in Buganda areas like Nakulabye. Men vowed never to shave off until their king in back.
4. The colonial government appointed more Africans to the colonial administration.
5. Encouraged the growth of nationalism in the whole of Uganda. The crisis had showed Ugandans the determination of colonialists to stay on hence more demands for independence.
6. Led to formation of new political parties which began by demanding of the return of Kabaka and finally for independence.
7. The crisis and the Namirembe agreement affected the position of the Kabaka. His reduced powers as we approached independence laid ground for his eventual over throw in the 1966 crisis with Obote .M.
8. The idea of East African Federation was completely ruled out after the crisis.
9. Increased the popularity of the Kabaka especially among the Baganda as well as other areas of Uganda.

Political parties in Uganda after 1950.

A number of political parties were formed or old ones revised after 1950. These were to lead the way towards Ugandan’s independence by 1962. Such parties included

1. Uganda National Congress (UNC) 1952.
2. Democratic party(DP)1954
3. The Progress Party (PP) 1955
4. United Congress Party(UCP) 1957
5. Uganda National Movement (UNM) 1959
6. Uganda People’s Union (UPU) 1958
7. Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) 1960
8. The Kabaka Yekka (KY) 1962.

Role played by political parties in the struggle for Uganda’s independence.

1. Parties trained leaders who helped to mobilize the masses in the demand for independence.
2. They sensitized and educated Ugandans on the politics in the country. This aroused political awareness in Uganda.
3. Called for independence of Uganda raising Massive support to the independence movement.
4. Organized peaceful demonstrations, against colonial policies like taxation , cash crop growing (forced) etc.
5. Parties sent representatives in the pre- independence negotiations and last minutes constitutional preparations.
6. Mobilized funds to finance political activities including campaigns for the pre- independence elections.
7. Party slogans and songs became a key symbol of attraction for large gatherings. This made flow of information about the struggle very easy.
8. Recruited the youths into active party service thus training a generation that was to lead Uganda to independence such as Mayanja Nkangi , Ignatius Musaazi .etc.
9. Violent action organized by the various parties pressurised the colonialists to grant independence. Boycotts, attacks on foreigners and torching (burning) houses all speeded up the process to decolonize Uganda.

Factors which facilitated the attainment of independence in Uganda.

Many factors worked in favour of the rise and growth of nationalism in Uganda. It’s these factors that eventually led to the early independence of Uganda by 1962. They included:

1. The impact of the Second World War (1939-1945) led to Uganda’s independence. Ex – soldiers came back with military skills and militant ideas leading to violent action like burning of white owned houses.
2.  The rise of labour party into power in Britain in 1945 also forvoured Ugandan’s struggle for independence. This led to the appointment of some Ugandans on the Legico.
3. The Manchester Conference of 1945 helped nationalism in Uganda. Its call for use for use of all means including force to fight for independence led to use of strikes in demanding for independence.
4. Western education (especially through missionary schools) trained leaders for the independence movement. Eg Musazi, M. Obote , Mayanja Abu
5. The roads, railway line and other form of infrastructure proved by the colonial administration helped the struggle. Nationalists like Obote used these to traverse the whole of Uganda for support.
6. The formation of political parties led to independence. Parties like KY, UPC, DP UNC mobilized the masses in the demand for independence.
7. The continued exploitation by Asians and whites of Uganda’s resources like copper in Kilembe provoked anger among Ugandans.
8. The development of urban centers such as Jinja, Kampala favored nationalism in Uganda. These became bleeding grounds for political activities like rallies and demonstrations.
9. Asian countries like India which had already got independence (1947) helped Uganda too. Some Ugandan nationalist like Abu Mayanja, Bidandi Sali e.tc. Studied in India or attended conferences there.
10. The 1952 revolution in Egypt also influenced nationalism in Uganda Nasser , the new president of Egypt assisted Ugandans like Ignatius Musaazi of UNC (Uganda National Congress)
11. The United Nations organization also put pressure on British to decolonize even Uganda.
12. The British policy of favoring Buganda more than the rest of Uganda. This made the rest of Ugandan’s unite against the Baganda first and finally the colonialists too.
13. Ghana’s early independence in 1957 also inspired strong demand for independence in 1957 also inspired strong demand for independence in Uganda too.

Major obstacles in the struggle for Uganda’s independence

The struggle for Uganda’s independence and generally the growth of African nationalism in Uganda was delayed/ disturbed by a number of factors.

1. The high levels of illiteracy in Uganda affected the struggle. The few educated people Uganda had by 1945- 50 were mainly centered around Buganda only. This left the rest of the regions off the struggle for so many years.
2. Lack of a common language in Uganda also disturbed the struggle for independence. Luganda ,Acholi and other languages were used by different groups to push for their tribal interests. This promoted the divide and rule policy of the colonialists
3. Trade Union activities were limited in Uganda. The restrictions by colonialists had discouraged formation of trade unions which would have helped in the demand for independence.
4. The limitations on the press delayed the struggle. The few news papers such as “Uganda Eyogera” were in Luganda hence only read by Baganda. This isolated the other Ugandan’s from ideas in the paper.
5. Some of the elites were puppets of the British colonial government and hence could not join political paties like UNC, UPC etc.
6. The delay to establish contacts between nationalists in Uganda and outside Africa also delayed the struggle. Very few Ugandans had traveled to democratic states like USA to borrow the spirit of freedom and hence few would challenge colonialism as an abuse of human rights.
7. The formation of political parties too delayed independence. Active party politics did not come until after 1950.
8. Religious divisions between Protestants and Catholics also affected the struggle. Parties never combined efforts because of the differences in religion.
9. The common hatred towards the Baganda by nationalist from other parts prevented a united stand against colonialism. The fact that the British had used Baganda chiefs like Semei Kakungulu to speed colonial rule to the East made Baganda a target by others.
10. The secessionist attempts by Buganda delayed the struggle. With much of the infrastructure, the attempt to break off the rest of Uganda was unacceptable by other nationalist hence preventing a common front against colonial rule.
11. There were also ideological differences even within the different political parties. Where the DP leaders had capitalist sentiments, UNC and UPC were pro- socialist. They thus never combined efforts against the British because of such differences.

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AFRICAN NATIONALISM

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN EAST AFRICA

FACTORS FOR THE RISE AND GROWTH OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM IN EAST AFRICA.

• The colonial policies led to the growth of African nationalism in East Africa. Evils of colonialism such as forced labor, over taxation, land alienation, racial discrimination and forced growing of cash crops etc. made the people of East Africa hate the colonial masters.

• Western education led to the rise and growth of African nationalism. The fewAfricans who went to schools like King’s college Budo acquired a common language – English. This made communication very easy between the nationalists of different races.

• The Second World War also encouraged African nationalism. This war which started in 1939 and ended in 1945 trained some East Africans on how to use guns,  exposed them to military weakness of the whites and also exposed Africans to ideas of democracy from American soldiers.

• The rise of two new super powers in the world promoted African nationalism. USA and USSR started supporting political parties like UPC, TANU and KANU struggling for independence.

• The formation of the United Nations in 1945 favored African nationalism. UNO put pressure on Britain to grant independence to Tanganyika, Uganda and finally to Kenya.

• The Atlantic charter of 1941 helped nationalism in East Africa. W. Churchill (Britain) and F. Roosevelt (USA) called for the respect of people’s rights to choose a government of their will. This increased desire for independence in East Africa.

• The 1945 Manchester Pan African conference helped African nationalism. Delegates including Nkrumah etc called for states to use all means to fight against colonialism.

• The formation of political parties also encouraged nationalism in East Africa. Parties like KANU, KADU (KENYA) TANU (TZ) UNC UPC, DP, and KY (Uganda) mobilized the people in demanding for independence.

• The Mau Mau uprising of 1952 – 56 in Kenya encouraged nationalism in East Africa. The courage of the Kikuyu and other fighters against the British had attracted more demand for independence even in Tanzania and Uganda.

• The rise of able and charismatic leaders such as Jomo Kenyatta , Julius Nyerere, Milton Obote, Abu Mayanja and others. These led the masses in popular demonstrations and rallies demanding for independence
•  The development of the press
• Emergence urban centers such as Kampala, Nairobi, Entebe etc.

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COURSE OF THE MAU-MAU MOVEMENT

 

    WHY DID THE MAU-MAU TAKE LONG TO END?

• Africans were using guerrilla warfare based in Abedare mountains and mountain Kenya making it difficult for the government to suppress them.
  
• The rebels adopted good military strategies and spy network as the majority were ex-soldiers.
  
• They had been able to acquire guns, which gave them military advantage.
• The British were depending on the Africans, some of whom were secret members of the Mau-Mau. The Africans were forced to take traditional oaths, which unified them.
  
• The availability of able leaders like Jomo Kenyatta and General China.
  
• African determination gave them courage to persist for a long time.

WHY WAS THE UPRISING SUPPRESSED/ REASONS WHY THE
RESISTANCE FAILED

• Some Africans allied with the British. These included the brain washed Africans who called themselves ‘good Christians, law abiding citizens of Kenya’, and African chiefs who were appointed by the British. These collaborated with the British and defeated the Africans.
  
• The resistance was affected and weakened by the removal of African strong leaders through detention,imprisonment and executions for example, in April 1953, Jomo Kenyatta was arrested, tried and sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment.
• The British were better-equipped and better fighters. Militarily the British had superior weapons although the Africans had the zeal to fight they used locally made weapons to execute their cause as compared to the British who had armoured trains, guns and automatic tracing equipment like Binoculars. This partly explains why the Mau Mau was defeated.
  
• There were disagreements among the political parties in the later stages of the rebellion. The lack of a single mass political party that would have spearheaded the struggle for example, Kenya African National Union (KANU) which comprised of the Kikuyu and Luo advocated for a military government while Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) dominated by the Kalenjin and Coastal Bantu tribes advocated for a central government. These disagreements and quarrels partly explain the defeat.
  
• The eventual death of Mau Mau commanders led like General China and Field Marshal Dedan Kimathi led to its defeat. These two had been the most experienced soldiers who had participated in the Second World War and knew well the weakness of European soldiers. Worse still, their death by public hanging served to frighten many Africans from joining the Mau Mau.
  
• They had no enough food as they did not have time to engage in farming.  The food stores where burnt by the colonial government so the fighters had to survive by feeding on bitter roots, fish and wild game. Such a diet greatly demoralized them.
  
• A part from forcing them to unite, the idea of forcing Africans to take an oath was disadvantageous to some extent since some people were not faithful.
  
• The British were constantly re-enforced by their home governments.
  
• Africans fought single handedly, for example the British were constantly provided with food, ammunition and clothing. The British police could frequently be flown into Kenya to help the Kenya African riffles in disorganizing the Mau Mau movement.
  
• Banning of political parties in Kenya weakened Mau Mau movement. After the British realizing that political violence towards the Africans had failed to contain the strength of the guerrilla movement, they banned KAU and political leaders like Kenyatta were imprisoned. The party supporters threatened to withdraw their support while the combatants at the front lost the morale to fight. Such confusion could not yield any victory to the Mau Mau fighters.
  
• The determination of the British to calm down the rebellion. They used violent approaches to weaken the Mau Mau further for example, the government detained the Africans in reserves and this reduced the level of interaction amongst the Africans. The leaders of the uprising such as General China were publicly hanged, Jomo Kenyatta who was so influential was detained for seven years. This weakened the uprising which was defeated by 1956.

MEASURES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT TO SUPPRESS THE UP RISING

At first it was regarded as a minor rising, so it deployed the police who were using the King’s African Rifles. On realizing that this strategy had failed, the then governor, Sir Evelyn Baring declared a state of emergency and more troops were sent in from Europe as step one.

All political parties were abolished and Kenyatta and other prominent leaders suspected of being the key leaders of the movement were arrested. In April 1953, Kenyatta was sentenced to a term of seven years imprisonment.

Having got rid of the prominent leaders, government troops headed for the forests where serious fighting ensued. Meanwhile, a number of Kikuyu were rounded up and taken to special emergency camps in various areas, example, Nairobi, Embu, Meru

In 1954, government organized more raids in Nairobi area and rounded up more than 26,000 Kikuyu and also moved to other areas, like Kamba, Embu, Meru and so on.

Besides rounding up the Kikuyu, in Nairobi, the government also came for the Kikuyu who were studying at Makerere University.

In that same year (1954) General China was also arrested .His real name was Waruhiu Itote. He was captured and sentenced to death.  He was leading the struggle from Mt. Kenya.

Another leader, Dedan Kimathi who had continued with the struggle after General China was also captured and sentenced to death in 1956.After their capture, the struggle begun declining. However, fighting continued until 1960 when government declared that the emergency was over

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The Mau - Mau Uprising 1954

THE EMERGENCE OF THE MODERN EAST AFRICAN NATIONS 1900 - 1963

                     
                                      The Mau - Mau Uprising 1954

Mau-Mau was an underground political movement (uprising) organized by the people of Kenya against colonial rule from 1951-60 under leaders such as Jomo Kenyata, Dedan Kimathi, Waruhiu Itote  popularly known as General China and Tom Mboya etc.

The movement was precipitated by the returning African soldiers after the Second World War who were politically aware. It was an attempt by the Africans to change the system of economic and social injustice which had become a marked feature in Kenya. They were all directed towards achieving their independence.

The Mau-Mau uprising presents an example of African efforts to fight for their rights after realizing that were oppressed in their own country. It is also an indication that Africans were politically aware and determined to shape their destiny.

Objectives

At the end of the topic students should be able to:

1. Explain the background of the Mau-Mau up rising
   
2. Explain the causes of the uprising
   
3. Describe the course or stages of the uprising
   
4. State reasons why the rising took long to end (1951-1960)
   
5. Explain why the uprising was suppressed
   
6. Explain government measures to contain the uprising
   
7. State the effects of the uprising

Key concepts to emphasize by the teacher

The teacher should have advance knowledge on the following:

1. Other rebellions
   
2. The second world war
   
3. Where the rising took place
   
4. The leaders of the rising
   
5. Why their was that rising
   
6. Other current uprisings

Teaching and learning aids/materials

Photographs of the Mau-Mau leaders (Were and Wilson pg 189-191)
A Sketch map of Kenya showing the area where Mau Mau was carried out.

Teacher’s Guide

Additional notes and textbooks like

1. Were and Wilson East Africa through a thousand years,
   
2. Odhiambo A history of East Africa and
   
3. The Trial of Dedan Kimathi etc

Guiding questions

1a) What were the causes of the Mau-Mau uprising in Kenya in 1954.


  b) Why was it difficult to suppress by the Europeans?

2a)  Describe the course of the Mau-Mau uprising

  b) Explain why the uprising was later suppressed by the Europeans.

3 a) What were the measures taken by government to suppress the uprising.

  b) Outline the effects of the uprising.

THE MAU-MAU REBELLION 1951 - 60

This was a Kenyan underground political movement that aimed at saving Kenya from British colonial rule. Mau-Mau is an abbreviation which stands for “Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafirika Apate Uhuru” ( meaning let the white man go back to Europe and the Africans regain Independence)  

It was a rebellion organized by the people of Kenya against colonial administration from 1951-60 under leaders such as Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan Kimathi, Waruhiu Itote popularly known as General China.
                 
Mau Mau was an underground movement comprising of extreme African Nationalists with in the newly formed Kenya African Union and the second world war ex-service men. The movement was originally dominated by the Kikuyu but were later joined by other tribes.

Ritual oathing was a crucial component of Mau Mau participation, as they called on the old God - Ngai - to witness the oath that people would swear to be united in their fight against the colonial enemy, and would take back the land that the white man had stolen. Jacob Njangi, a former fighter, explained:

"We used to drink the oath. We swore we would not let white men rule us forever. We would fight them even down to our last man, so that man could live in freedom."

The oaths were a cultural symbol of the solidarity that bound Kikuyu men, women and children together in their opposition to the colonial government. But they were also feared, as the taboos that traditionally surrounded the breaking of oaths were still very much current. Those who took the Mau Mau oaths were taught that their violation would be instantly lethal, and in practise it was indeed so: not because of the wrath of Ngai, but because of bloody reprisals by the Mau Mau themselves, for whom refusing to take the oath was the same as siding with the colonial regime.

Nonetheless, the British were scared by the oath, for they knew full well that for the Kikuyu (or any other Kenyan, in fact), an oath was a deadly serious matter, and could never be broken. As a result, the British made taking the Mau Mau oath a capital offence. Between 1953 and 1956 more than 1,000 Africans were publicly hanged for alleged Mau Mau crimes - in Britain, public hangings had been outlawed for over a century.

The British also screened Mau Mau suspects and forced them to take a 'cleansing oath', a strange instance of colonialism 'gone native'. Concocted by the anthropologist Louis Leakey and rich Kikuyu landowners who stood to lose their British-granted privileges if independence came to be, the Kikuyu were to swear upon githathi (sacred stones) for a reversal of the Mau Mau oath.

Many, of course, refused, so alternative means had to be found to 'convince' people to abandon their oaths. John Nottingham, a district officer in the colonial service from 1952 to 1961, explains, "The way that it worked out was that if you beat them up enough then they would confess an oath. So what you do is beat them up and then you give them a bit of paper and a piece of blunt pencil and say, 'Confess! I took it! I took it! I took it!' You are now a human being again."

Ironically, this was probably the first time that any of the suspects had ever been called 'human beings' by the wazungu.

The Mau Mau operation was guided by Oath. The fighters bound their core membership with a sacred oath of secrecy. Violation of the oath meant an automatic death to the offender. The blacks aimed at sending away the whites and achieving their independence. They were so committed to this fundamental cause that each member took the traditional oath. To this oath, one was obliged to shed his or her blood for the sake of others and above all the future prosperity of all.

THE MAU-MAU REBELLION 1951 - 60

This was a Kenyan underground political movement that aimed at saving Kenya from British colonial rule. Mau-Mau is an abbreviation which stands for “Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafirika Apate Uhuru” ( meaning let the white man go back to Europe and the Africans regain Independence)  

It was a rebellion organized by the people of Kenya against colonial administration from 1951-60 under leaders such as Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan Kimathi, Waruhiu Itote popularly known as General China.
                 
Mau Mau was an underground movement comprising of extreme African Nationalists with in the newly formed Kenya African Union and the second world war ex-service men. The movement was originally dominated by the Kikuyu but were later joined by other tribes. The Mau Mau operation was guided by Oath. The fighters bound their core membership with a sacred oath of secrecy. Violation of the oath meant an automatic death to the offender. The blacks aimed at sending away the whites and achieving their independence. They were so committed to this fundamental cause that each member took the traditional oath. To this oath, one was obliged to shed his or her blood for the sake of others and above all the future prosperity of all.

CAUSES OF THE MAU-MAU REBELLION

• It was due to unemployment of the ex-soldiers who had been promised jobs after the World War II, but instead were made porters on European-estates. Similarly, people were retrenched, traders pushed out to business by Asian retail trade monopoly and European settlers. Therefore by 1952 the young energetic African went to the forests of Abadare and Mountain Kenya Rift Valley and waged a violent offensive against the British hoping for a change.
  
• Africans wanted their land especially the Kikuyu who had been displaced from the fertile Kenya highlands. The European had used the support of the colonial government to take away land including the ancestral land to which they attached great value. Many were pushed into reserves and camps were they suffered from congestion, starvation and diseases like typhoid, cholera.
  
• It was a reaction against the Kipande system. This was a method of identity cards imposed on Africans to restrict them from unnecessary movements. The kipande system required moving with a ‘PASS’ which was big a metallic card carried in the neck of the African.
• The introduction of racial discrimination in Kenya. This was discrimination according to colour. The Europeans equated the black colour with low intelligence, uncivilized, barbaric and a backward race. All the best hotels, restaurants, schools, recreational centres and most fertile soils in Kenya were reserved for the whites only.
  
• Africans were fed up of heavy and harsh taxation by the Europeans. Failure to pay tax was punishable by taking away the land or even imprisonment. So the Africans were forced to go and work under harsh condition and for long hours, yet poorly paid. This forced them to join the uprising.
  
• The dominance of the economy by the Asian and white settlers. The Africans were not allowed to take part in meaningful business, were not given positive consideration in awarding jobs. The whites upheld the view that blacks were only fit to work as Shamba boys on the colonial farms or maids in the European and Asian homes. To this end, the Africans revolted so as to change the situation for the better.
  
• They also wanted to be exposed to the social services e.g. education. The white settlers feared the educated Africans for losing their white color jobs in the government as well as losing unskilled African labour on their farms. In this respect they discouraged African education. In so doing, they worked to frustrate the African efforts to set up schools even the few educated Africans were not employed in the civil service. So these unemployed Africans fought for the preservation of their right as an educated class.
  
• Africans feared a gradual destruction of their culture by the whites e.g. the missionaries were totally against the circumcision of women among the Kikuyu and the traditional view of twins.
  
• Africans wanted a fair share in the administration of their country (Parliament). For a long time many Kenyans were excluded from decision making and political participation the whites and Asians in the Legislative Council did not represent their interests.
  
• The return of Jomo Kenyatta in the 1950s’ after his studies in Europe, he came back with a wider vision in politics after participating in various conferences(Manchester conference of 1945) therefore this made enabled him convince the Kenyans about their rights and they therefore united and rebelled.
  
• The role of educated Kenyans ;this group of people by nature of their education became aware of their rights as citizens of Kenya and it is along that they started campaigns of educating the people about their place in society. This prompted them to rebel against the whites.
     
• The colonial policy discouraged Africans from growing cash crops like coffee, tea, cotton, pyrethrum for fear of competition with the Africans. They feared that they would grow rich and challenge the colonial administration. This led to too much poverty so they joined the rebellion hoping to find a solution.
  
• Forced labour on white man’s plantations led to Mau Mau: Africans were obliged by colonial law to offer labour on the plantation this was to be done forcefully with out offering any payments. This kind of new slavery inspired the occurrence of the Mau Mau rebellion as the first violent revolt against the British after World War II.
  
• Influence of the Second World War many Kenyans who participated in this war   discovered the weakness of the white man and the loopholes in their systems of administration. These included General China, Didan Kimathi among others. These people had acquired good military skills, enjoyed high standards of living, realized that some Africans were braver then some whites. These joined together with the unemployed Kenyans with a hope of gaining their Independence.

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The Portuguese rule in east africa

The Portuguese at the East African coast 1500 – 1700 A.D

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to have contacts with the people of the East African Coast. They were adventurous and in search for the sea route to India. This led them to the East African Coast where they stayed for 200 years.

Why the Portuguese defeated the East African Coastal towns/Why the Portuguese were successful

• They had superior weapons e.g. cannon guns which made terrible noise and threw  people in panic as compared to the poor musket guns of the coastal Arabs.
• They had well trained soldiers with superior skills of fighting compared to the coastal people who had no permanent organized army e.g Vasco da gama, Francisco D’Alemeida were ruthless army commanders which helped them to defeat the coastal dwellers.
    
• They had better and faster ships (carracks) well equipped for naval warfare. The Portuguese soldiers wore Armour on their bodies and helmets on their heads, which protected them from the weapons of the coastal people.
• The coastal towns were disunited which gave chance to the Portuguese to fight isolated enemies e.g. Malindi refused to unite with Mombasa due to local conflicts.  Some cooperated with the invaders giving them food and bases e.g. Malindi and Sofala.
• Some coastal towns like Kilwa were caught unaware. The Portuguese employed cruel methods of fighting like burning down towns and surprise attacks.
• The ships acted as stages against the hostile weapons of the coastal people.
• The coast had natural burners and was not open to attacks.
• The constant attacks on the coastal towns by the Galla, Zimba and Turkish e.t.c had weakened their defence.
• The Portuguese were financially equipped and therefore supported their soilders because they wanted to control the East African trade.
• The coastal states had very weak economies that could not sustain prolonged fights especially against the economically strong Portuguese.
• 
  

• Reasons for the coming of the Portuguese at the East African coast

• The need to establish a commercial empire in order to get the products of East Africa e.g. ivory, gold, silks and spices were mainly controlled by the Arabs merchants.
• They wanted to obtain control of the main trading towns, e.g. Kilwa, Mombasa etc.
• They wanted to defeat the Moslem traders and rulers who had monopolized the Indian Ocean trade.
• They wanted to prevent other European rivals from gaining access to the Indian Ocean Trade e.g. the French, Dutch, British
• Desire to get revenue for the development of their country.
• The Portuguese wished to share in the profits of the Indian Ocean Trade by imposing taxes and forcing wealthy coastal towns to pay tribute to the king of Portugal.
• The coast had natural harbors where ships could anchor on their way to and from the East for fresh food and water.  The Portuguese therefore wanted to establish a calling station for resting, refresh, treating the sick, repairing wrecked ships e.t.c
• The coast was strategically located and this made it easy to control sea pirates and other rival powers.
• They wanted to revenge on the Moslem Arabs who had conquered Portugal in 711 AD by converting them to Christianity and stop the spread of Islam i.e. the Arabs had ever run the Iberian Peninsula and forced the Christians to accept Islam.
• They hoped to get assistance of King Prester John thought to be in the interior of north –east Africa. They hoped the king would help them in their crusade against the Moslems. 
• They had hope of stopping Egyptians and Turks from sending military aid to their fellow Moslems on the coast.
• They were interested in exploration and adventure, this was a period of Renaissance (means to be born again/change) in Europe. Hence hoped to search for the unknown, new knowledge and sailing across un mapped seas.
• Desire to acquire revenue for the development of their country.

Portuguese Administration at the coast; the political, economic, social way of life of the East African coast under the Portuguese rule

Political

By 1510, the conquest of the East African coast was over and administration fell into the hands of the Portuguese. For easy administration, the coast was divided into two zones;

• The area North of Cape Delgado was ruled by the Captain at Malindi.
• The area South of Cape Delgado was ruled by Captain at Mozambique.

By 1507, Mozambique had become the headquarters of the southern portion in charge of a Portuguese viceroy. Another Portuguese captain in charge of the area North of Delgado was stationed at Malindi. Both captains were answerable to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa on Indian coast at the General headquarters. Cape Delgado was made the mid point of the East Africa possession. Sofala was made the regional headquarters but still under the charge of the captain who took his orders from the vicory at Goa. Later, the Captain in the North was stationed at Mombasa after the construction of Fort Jesus in 1593 because they were rebellious.  Other forts and garrisons were established at Sofala and Kilwa. 
The Portuguese captains were responsible for the collections of tributes from coastal rulers. They imposed the customs dues on all imports and exports.  They were also responsible for the suppression of rebellions on the coast.  The Portuguese had problems with administration because they could not provide enough troops to all garrisons their strongholds.
The Portuguese captains collected import duties, export duties and tributes from the local leaders. The Portuguese were more interested in gold trade which passed in Sofala land they ignored the towns.
Unfortunately, they failed to develop this trade because of the following;
There were wars in the mining areas between the Portuguese and Coastal people.   
As a result the Portuguese were so cruel that any sign of disobedience was punished with maximum brutality to serve as a warning to others who might choose to rebel. This partly explains the unpopularity of the Portuguese on the coast.

Social

The relationship with the subjects was not good. They lived in isolation of each other by race and religion. The Portuguese established their own settlements, built their own churches and had their own priest. This could be the reason why their religion was rejected and hatred increased.

In addition, the few Portuguese officials were corrupt, plundered and ordered destruction on the coastal town. All this earned them hatred and opposition from the people and it was not a surprise that they were nicknamed "AFRITI" meaning Devil.

The Portuguese did not mix freely with Africans because they considered themselves to be a special race.

During the Portuguese reign, the glory of the coastal states was no more. The high standards of living the coastal people had enjoyed were no more. The trade that had made them rich was declining.  Many buildings were in ruins and there was widespread poverty and misery.

Reasons that led to the decline of the Portuguese at the East African Coast (Problems/challenges they faced)

• Portugal was a small country that could not provide enough administrators and officials for such a large coastline that extended from Sofala in the south to Mogadishu in the north.
• It had few soldiers and could not keep fortified garrison along the coast.
• Authority was left in hands of incompetent and corrupt officials who were after enriching themselves.
• The Africans hated the Portuguese due to differences in religion, that is to say, Moslems against Christians (Portuguese).
• The Portuguese were cruel, harsh and brutal, they always punished the coastal people whenever they attempted to rebel and made them to be hated.
• The Portuguese also used divide and rule policy for example, they allied with Malindi against Mombasa.
• The territory was too big and long for effective control and administration.
• There was decline of trade due high taxes on imports and other restrictions hence smuggling of goods, which affected the Portuguese economy.
• Due to decline in trade, the people became poor and dissatisfied and they continuously rebelled.
• The Portuguese failed to support their own allies at the coast, some even betrayed them.
• Portugal had been forced into a union with Spain between1580–1640 which weakened her control of the trading colonies as she was no longer interested in the overseas empire.
• Portugal was challenged by other European powers, which began competing with the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean Trade e.g. Dutch, English, French, Turks and others.
• The coastal people found useful allies against the Portuguese due to their bad rule e.g. Turks, Oman, and Arabs
• They were faced with constant rebellions along the coast. This greatly disrupted life at the coast e.g. Pate, Mombasa
• Tropical diseases which claimed their life like smallpox, malaria making it difficult for them to administer the coast effectively.
• The Portuguese were greatly weakened by a group of cannibals the Zimba, who attacked the East African coast.
• The unhealthy climate made the area unattractive for them to work for instance, some places where too humid and hot while others where too cold. 
• The distance between Portugal and the East African coast was too far hence reinforcement delayed.
• There was a problem of communication barrier, the Portuguese refused to learn the African languages and these made their administration difficult.
• The income obtained from the gold trade was not enough to pay for administration i.e. soldiers and officials.
• The Portuguese lost muz in 1622 to the Persians during the struggle with Arabs and  in 1650 the Oman Arabs won back Muscat.
•  The Capture of Fort Jesus their stronghold in 1698 by the Omani greatly contributed to their decline.

Results of Portuguese stay at the coast of East Africa

Positive:

• The Portuguese built Fort Jesus at the coast in Mombasa in1592/3 which became a fortress and later a tourist attraction for centuries.
• They enriched the Swahili language with an addition of 60 words e.g. emeza meaning table and pesa meaning money.
• They introduced new crops from South Africa of which many have become staple diet for many East Africans e.g. cassava, pawpaws, maize, oranges, sweet potatoes, guavas, pineapples and mangoes
• They made an improvement in ship building. During their stay on the coast, many architects came in from India and Europe.
• There was establishment of closer trading links between the coast and India.
• They introduced new farming methods for example they encouraged the use of cow dung as manure.
• They led to the coming of more European and Asian traders and craftsmen especially those who helped in the building of Fort Jesus.
• They broke the Muslim- Arab monopoly of the Indian Ocean Trade.

Negative:

• Trade declined due to the constant wars and rebellions and heavy taxes imposed.
• There was decline of the coastal towns because many were burnt down and left in ruins for example Kilwa and Mombasa.
• There was widespread poverty and misery among the coastal people due to decline in trade.
• There was heavy loss of lives during the attacks.
• There was destruction of property like buildings and crops, which led to famine and starvation.
• The coastal people suffered oppression and brutality under harsh rule of the Portuguese.
• Their religion, Christianity, made no impact at the coast because they lived far from their subjects and stagnation of the Islamic faith because discouraged preaching.
• There was depopulation due to the many wars in the areas smuggling developed because the Portuguese had failed to establish proper trading links with the Interior.
• Some towns were prevented from trading with their initial partners which led to their decay e.g. Gedi
• They led to the European interest at the coast hence leading to the colonization in the 19th Century.

   test your  level

(you  can then  submit this   sheet  to  your  instructor for marking) 

Student Sheet

The Portuguese in East Africa

(Routes to India)

Activity 1

True or False Quiz

Choose the correct answer:

1. The first Portuguese expedition to the East African coast was in 1497.

 True False

2. Batholmew Diaz was the 2nd European to sail around the Cape of Good Hope.

 True False

3. Pedro. A. Cabral attempted to capture Sofala in 1500.

 True False

4. In 1502, Vasco da Gama captured Kilwa on his second trip to India.

 True False

5. Malindi joined hands with Mombasa to fight the Portuguese.

 True False

6. Franscisco D'Almeida captured Sofara in 1505 on his way to Gao.

 True False

7. Scotra, Oja Brava and Meska were captured in 1506 - 1507 by Tristian Da Cunha.

 True False

8. Malindi was excused from paying tribute to Portugal.

 True False

9. The Portuguese conquest of E.African coast was completed by 1510.

 True False

10. The occupation of the E. African coast was largely by use of arms.

 True False

Activity 2: Find out about Portugal and the Portuguese

Search in textbooks (geography or history textbooks) and the internet

- Find the location of Portugal on a world map.

- What facts can you find about Portugal/the Portuguese?

- Why do you think their location on the world map could have attracted them to the East African Coast?

- What other interesting information can you find about the Portuguese?

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Benefits of the Rift valley to the people of East Africa

                                   FAULTING

A fault is a break, crack or a fracture in the Earth crust produced by vertical and lateral movements within the earth’s crust.

Faulting is one of the internal land form bulding process which shapes the earth’s surface. It is caused by earth movements, which create forces of tension and compression that are either lateral or vertical.

If forces of tension and compression are created by earth movements the rocks of the earth crust may fracture or crack. thus the faults are formed . The line along which rocks have fractured is called a fault.

Tension causes a normal fault, compression causes a reverse fault and lateral movement produces a tear fault.

Escarpments is a steep sided feature bordering a rift valley which develops when faulting is accompained by upward or downward movement of adjoining parts of the crust.

Types of faults

Normal faults

These are formed by the forces of tension. If the rocks are under tension ,faults will be formed and the centre block may sink down relative to its neighbours. Normal faults are common in East Africa.

Reverse faults

These are also known as thrust faults and are caused by the forces of compression when the strata or layers are compressed or pressed together the rocks will crack and faults will be formed. One block of rocks may override another to form a black mountain or a horst. Such faults are common in western Uganda. The Rwenzori mountain is an example of a block mountain formed by thrust faults.

Tear faults
When lateral movement is taking place particularly during an earthquake, tear faults may occur. Tear faults are also known as wrench or transform faults. If a tear fault occurs across the course of a river, then the river’s course may be slightly offset.

FEATURES FORMED (PRODUCED) AS A RESULT OF FAULTING

Faulting has produced a variety of physical features over the surface of the earth. Among the most remarkable features are;

• Block mountains
• Tilt blocks
• Rift valleys or grabens
• Escarpments or fault scarps
• Rift lakes.

Block Mountains

A block mountain is also known as a Horst. It is formed when the middle block which is bounded by more or less parallel faults is made to rise or is uplifted by the compressional forces. The best example of a block mountain in East Africa is mount. Rwenzori ranges, also known as the mountains of the moon. Others include Mathews ranges and Nyiru Ndoto in Northern Kenya.

Tilt Blocks

Tilt blocks are formed when one side of the middle block is uplifted higher than the other side. The top of the middle block will not be flat but will be tilted. E.g. west Kenya tilt block, which rises to about 1900 metres towards lake Victoria.

Escarpments
Escarpments are steep cliff-like slopes. Escarpments are said to have been formed during the formation of the rift valleys.

Some escarpments are steep and may extend several hundreds of kilometres.When escarpments are eroded, they become fault scarps.

Examples of such escarpments in East Africa include:

• Mandi(Kenya)
  
• Butiaba (uganda)
  
• Eldeyo marakwet (Kenya)
  
• Kikuyu (Kenya)
  
• Mau (kenya)
  
• Lake manyara (Tanzania)
  
• Nyando (Kenya)
  
• Keiyo (Kenya)
  
• Nyandarua (or Aberdare) (Kanya)
  
• Chuya (Tanzania.)

RIFT VALLEYS

A rift valley i san elongated traugh bound by two in-facing escarpments.

Rift valleys are long, narrow depressions on the earth surface bounded by more or less parallel faults. A rift valley is also known as a graben.

Rift valleys are thought to have been developed either from the action of tensional forces in the crust or from the action of compressional forces.

The East Africa rift valley system extends southwards from the Red sea. Through Ethiopia and East Africa to Malawi.

The east Africa rift valley covers a distance of approximately 5,600km .it is divided into two branches that is, the western rift valley and the eastern rift valley.

The Western branch stretches from lake Albert in Uganda to lake Malawi. The eastern branch stretches from lake Turkana in northern Kenya to lake Malawi.

The width of the rift valley varies from place to place. The average width is between 50km and 60km.

On the floor of the rift valley there are a number of rift lakes and volcanic craters such as longonat crater and menengai craters.

Origin of the rift valleys


A number of theories have been put forward to explain the origns of rift valleys. However, two have remained popular thus, there the two theories which attempt to explain the origin of rift valleys. One relies on the forces of tension and the other on the forces of compression. Both theories depend on upward swells, along the sides of which faults develop.

Theory 1: Tensional forces

a) Tension forces act on the layers of rock.

b) Gradually two parallel faults appear and the central block begins to subside (sink).

c)Land in between sinks in forming a rift valley. The land on either sides stays in place.

After subsidence a depression with steep fault scarp sides i.e. a rift valley is formed. It is trapped in position by later pressure.

Theory 2. Compressional forces

a) Layers of rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

b) Faults develop and the outer blocks move upwards (Reverse faults are formed).

c) Central block stays in place and a rift valley is formed.

RIFT  VALLEY LAKES

These have been formed on the floor of the rift valley and they vary in size, depth and salinity. Examples of the salty lakes are Natron, and Magadi. The rift valley has several in land water basins which contain lakes.

Rift valley lakes of East Africa

Kenya	Uganda	Tanzania
L. Turkana	L. Albert	L. Tanganyika
L.Baringo	L. Edward	L.Rukwa
L.Nakuru	L. George.	.L.Natron
L.Elmentata		L.Eyasi
L.Naivasha		L.Manyara.
L. Natron
L.Magadi

FAULTED AREAS IN EAST AFRICA

There are faulted areas in east Africa outside the rift valley such as:

Kavirondo rift at Kisumu.

Northern face of which is the Nandi scarp

Usambara mountains have fault scarps

Benefits of the Rift valley to the people of East Africa

• The beautiful scenery attracts tourists
  
• Lakes in the Rift valley provide fish. Forexample L.Tanganyika, L.Albert e.t.c.
  
• Rift valley lakes provide water for domestic and agricultural use
  
• Lakes help in navigation (water transport).
  
• Forests on the slopes are sources of timber
  
• Gentle slopes are used for crop farming and settlement due to fertile soils
  
• Rift valley lakes are used for mining forexample soda ash from L. Magadi
  
• Areas of little rainfall (rain shadow) provides pasture for grazing|
  
• Study purposes or research
  
• Wildlife conservation. Forexample game parks in rift valley areas.

Problems faced by the people living in the Rift valley areas of East Africa.

• High temperatures lead to shortage of water.’’
  
• Earthquakes (tremors) which destroy property
  
• Little rainfall or drought in the Rain shadow areas
  
• Poor means of transport and communication because of the steep escarpments
  
• Salty lakes because of high temperatures and high evaporation rates
  
• Soil erosion and land slides especially on the steep slopes
  

The East African Rift Valley

                                                              Importance of faulting

Faulting has resulted into the formation of high mountains in East Africa. For example the Rwenzori in western Uganda, the southern highlands and the Usambara mountains in Tanzania and the mathew ranges in Kenya. These are the most productive areas, where both cash crops and subsistence crops are grown.

These highlands receive abundant and reliable rainfall.

Rift valley lakes for example L. Tanganyika, lake Turkana, lake Naivasha and lake Baringo are fishing grounds.

Some of these lakes have fresh water which can be used for irrigation and also for domestic purposes and industrial use.

L.Magadi contains vast deposits of soda ash, which is one of the most important minerals in Kenya.

Faulting presents an impressive scenery which can be used for tourism. For example L.Nakuru has millions of colourful flamingos and other birds.

Some highlands have been made into National parks and game reserves e.g. the slopes of the Nyandarua and Rwenzori mountains . These parks attract many tourists.

Faulting can also cause the formatiom of waterfalls such as the Karuma falls, Murchison falls.

                                                    Problems caused by faulting

Escarpments and mountains hinder transport development.

Rift valleys are very hot and only suitable for grazing because they are in the rain shadow unless irrigation is practised as with the case of mubuku.

There is severe soil erosion and mass wasting on the step slopes which result in the destruction of soil surface, crops and at times people's property. For example Rwenzori mountains.

It is difficult to settle on the steep areas on the rift valley escarpments.

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