ENGLISH......(.PRONOUN)

PRONOUN

KINDS OF PRONOUNS 


 ( OPEN THESE LINK ) 


     : 
Personal...................OPEN LINK
 Demonstrative........OPEN LINK
Indefinite................OPEN LINK
 Relative...................OPEN LINK
  Reflexive.................OPEN LINK
  Intensive................OPEN LINK
 Interrogative...........OPEN LINK
 Reciprocal.............OPEN LINK


Definition

Generally (but not always) pronouns stand for (pro + noun) or refer to a noun, an individual or individuals or thing or things (the pronoun's antecedent) whose identity is made clear earlier in the text. For instance, we are bewildered by writers who claim something like

• They say that eating beef is bad for you.

They is a pronoun referring to someone, but who are they? Cows? whom do they represent? Sloppy use of pronouns is unfair.

Not all pronouns will refer to an antecedent, however.

• Everyone here earns over a thousand dollars a day.

The word "everyone" has no antecedent.

The problem of agreement between a pronoun and its antecedent and between a pronoun and its verb is treated in another section on Pronoun-Antecedent Consistency. The quizzes on pronoun usage are also listed at the end of that section.

This section will list and briefly describe the several kinds of pronouns.

KINDS OF PRONOUNS        ( OPEN THESE LINK )      : 
Personal...................OPEN LINK
 Demonstrative........OPEN LINK
Indefinite................OPEN LINK
 Relative...................OPEN LINK
  Reflexive.................OPEN LINK
  Intensive................OPEN LINK
 Interrogative...........OPEN LINK
 Reciprocal.............OPEN LINK

Personal Pronouns

Unlike English nouns, which usually do not change form except for the addition of an -s ending to create the plural or the apostrophe + s to create the possessive, personal pronouns (which stand for persons or things) change form according to their various uses within a sentence. Thus I is used as the subject of a sentence (I am happy.), me is used as an object in various ways (He hit me. He gave me a book. Do this for me.), and my is used as the possessive form (That's my car.) The same is true of the other personal pronouns: the singular you and he/she/it and the plural we, you, and they. These forms are called cases. An easily printable chart is available that shows the various Cases of the Personal Pronouns.

Personal pronouns can also be characterized or distinguished by person. First person refers to the speaker(s) or writer(s) ("I" for singular, "we" for plural). Second person refers to the person or people being spoken or written to ("you" for both singular and plural). Third person refers to the person or people being spoken or written about ("he," "she," and "it" for singular, "they" for plural). The person of a pronoun is also demonstrated in the chart Cases of the Personal Pronouns. As you will see there, each person can change form, reflecting its use within a sentence. Thus, "I" becomes "me" when used as an object ("She left me") and "my" when used in its possessive role (That's my car"); "they" becomes "them" in object form ("I like them") and "their" in possessive ("That's just their way").

When a personal pronoun is connected by a conjunction to another noun or pronoun, its case does not change. We would write "I am taking a course in Asian history"; if Talitha is also taking that course, we would write "Talitha and I are taking a course in Asian history." (Notice that Talitha gets listed before "I" does. This is one of the few ways in which English is a "polite" language.) The same is true when the object form is called for: "Professor Vendetti gave all her books to me"; if Talitha also received some books, we'd 

When a pronoun and a noun are combined (which will happen with the plural first- and second-person pronouns), choose the case of the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were not there.

• We students are demanding that the administration give us two hours for lunch.
• The administration has managed to put us students in a bad situation.

With the second person, we don't really have a problem because the subject form is the same as the object form, "you":

• "You students are demanding too much."
• "We expect you students to behave like adults."

Among the possessive pronoun forms, there is also what is called the nominative possessive: mine, yours, ours, theirs.

• Look at those cars. Theirs is really ugly; ours is beautiful.
• This new car is mine.
• Mine is newer than yours.

Demonstrative Pronouns

The family of demonstratives (this/that/these/those/such) can behave either as pronouns or as determiners.

As pronouns, they identify or point to nouns.

• That is incredible! (referring to something you just saw)
• I will never forget this. (referring to a recent experience)
• Such is my belief. (referring to an explanation just made)

As determiners, the demonstratives adjectivally modify a noun that follows. A sense of relative distance (in time and space) can be conveyed through the choice of these pronouns/determiners:

• These [pancakes sitting here now on my plate] are delicious.
• Those [pancakes that I had yesterday morning] were even better.
• This [book in my hand] is well written;
• that [book that I'm pointing to, over there, on the table] is trash.

A sense of emotional distance or even disdain can be conveyed with the demonstrative pronouns:

• You're going to wear these?
• This is the best you can do?

Pronouns used in this way would receive special stress in a spoken sentence.

When used as subjects, the demonstratives, in either singular or plural form, can be used to refer to objects as well as persons.

• This is my father.
• That is my book.

In other roles, however, the reference of demonstratives is non-personal. In other words, when referring to students, say, we could write "Those were loitering near the entrance during the fire drill" (as long as it is perfectly clear in context what "those" refers to). But we would not write "The principal suspended those for two days"; instead, we would have to use "those" as a determiner and write "The principal suspended those students for two days."

Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns (The student who studies hardest usually does the best.). The word who connects or relates the subject, student, to the verb within the dependent clause (studies). Choosing correctly between which and that and between who and whom leads to what are probably the most Frequently Asked Questions about English grammar. For help with which/that, refer to the Notorious Confusables article on those words (including the hyperlink to Michael Quinion's article on this usage and the links to relevant quizzes). Generally, we use "which" to introduce clauses that are parenthetical in nature (i.e., that can be removed from the sentence without changing the essential meaning of the sentence). For that reason, a "which clause" is often set off with a comma or a pair of commas. "That clauses," on the other hand, are usually deemed indispensable for the meaning of a sentence and are not set off with commas. The pronoun which refers to things; who (and its forms) refers to people; that usually refers to things, but it can also refer to people in a general kind of way. For help with who/whom refer to the section on Consistency. We also recommend that you take the quizzes on the use of who and whom at the end of that section.

The expanded form of the relative pronouns — whoever, whomever, whatever — are known as indefinite relative pronouns. A couple of sample sentences should suffice to demonstrate why they are called "indefinite":

• The coach will select whomever he pleases.
• He seemed to say whatever came to mind.
• Whoever crosses this line first will win the race.

What is often an indefinite relative pronoun:

• She will tell you what you need to know.

Indefinite Pronouns

The indefinite pronouns (everybody/anybody/somebody/all/each/every/some/none/one) do not substitute for specific nouns but function themselves as nouns (Everyone is wondering if any is left.)

One of the chief difficulties we have with the indefinite pronouns lies in the fact that "everybody" feels as though it refers to more than one person, but it takes a singular verb. (Everybody is accounted for.) If you think of this word as meaning "every single body," the confusion usually disappears. The indefinite pronoun none can be either singular or plural, depending on its context. None is nearly always plural (meaning "not any") except when something else in the sentence makes us regard it as a singular (meaning "not one"), as in "None of the food is fresh." Some can be singular or plural depending on whether it refers to something countable or noncountable. Refer to the section on Pronoun Consistency for help on determining the number of the indefinite pronouns (and the number [singular/plural] of the verbs that accompany them). There is a separate section on the uses of the pronoun one.

There are other indefinite pronouns, words that double as Determiners:

enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, several, more, most, all, both, every, each, any, either, neither, none, some

• Few will be chosen; fewer will finish.
• Little is expected.

See the section on Pronoun Consistency for help in determining the number (singular/plural) characteristics of these pronouns.

Intensive Pronouns

The intensive pronouns (such as myself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves) consist of a personal pronoun plus self or selves and emphasize a noun. (I myself don't know the answer.) It is possible (but rather unusual) for an intensive pronoun to precede the noun it refers to. (Myself, I don't believe a word he says.)

Reflexive Pronouns

The reflexive pronouns (which have the same forms as the intensive pronouns) indicate that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb. (Students who cheat on this quiz are only hurting themselves. You paid yourself a million dollars? She encouraged herself to do well.) What this means is that whenever there is a reflexive pronoun in a sentence there must be a person to whom that pronoun can "reflect." In other words, the sentence "Please hand that book to myself" would be incorrect because there is no "I" in that sentence for the "myself" to reflect to (and we would use "me" instead of "myself"). A sentence such as "I gave that book to myself for Christmas" might be silly, but it would be correct.

Be alert to a tendency to use reflexive pronoun forms (ending in -self) where they are neither appropriate nor necessary. The inappropriate reflexive form has a wonderful name: the untriggered reflexive. "Myself" tends to sound weightier, more formal, than little ol' me or I, so it has a way of sneaking into sentences where it doesn't belong.

• Bob and myself I are responsible for this decision.
• These decisions will be made by myself me.
• If you have any questions, please contact myself me or Bob Jones.

When pronouns are combined, the reflexive will take either the first person

• Juanita, Carlos, and I have deceived ourselves into believing in my uncle.

or, when there is no first person, the second person:

• You and Carlos have deceived yourselves.

The indefinite pronoun (see above) one has its own reflexive form ("One must have faith in oneself."), but the other indefinite pronouns use either himself or themselves as reflexives. (There is an entire page on the pronoun one.) It is probably better to pluralize and avoid the clumsy himself or herself construction.

• No one here can blame himself or herself.
• The people here cannot blame themselves.

Interrogative Pronouns

The interrogative pronouns (who/which/what) introduce questions. (What is that? Who will help me? Which do you prefer?) Which is generally used with more specific reference than what. If we're taking a quiz and I ask "Which questions give you the most trouble?", I am referring to specific questions on that quiz. If I ask "What questions give you most trouble"? I could be asking what kind of questions on that quiz (or what kind of question, generically, in general) gives you trouble. The interrogative pronouns also act as Determiners: It doesn't matter which beer you buy. He doesn't know whose car he hit. In this determiner role, they are sometimes called interrogative adjectives.

Like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns introduce noun clauses, and like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns play a subject role in the clauses they introduce:

• We know who is guilty of this crime.
• I already told the detective what I know about it.

Reciprocal Pronouns

The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They are convenient forms for combining ideas. If Bob gave Alicia a book for Christmas and Alicia gave Bob a book for Christmas, we can say that they gave each other books (or that they gave books to each other).

• My mother and I give each other a hard time.

If more than two people are involved (let's say a whole book club), we would say that they gave one another books. This rule (if it is one) should be applied circumspectly. It's quite possible for the exchange of books within this book club, for example, to be between individuals, making "each other" just as appropriate as "one another."

Reciprocal pronouns can also take possessive forms:

• They borrowed each other's ideas.
• The scientists in this lab often use one another's equipment.

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Most statistical analyses require that your data be in numerical rather than verbal form (you can’t punch letters into your calculator). Therefore, data collected in verbal form must be coded so that it is represented by numbers. To illustrate, consider the data in Table 1.

Table 1. Example Data

Student Name	Hair Color	Gender	Major	Height	ComputerExperience
Norma	Brown	Female	Psychology	5’4”	Lots
Amber	Blonde	Female	Social Science	5’7”	Very little
Paul	Blonde	Male	History	6’1”	Moderate
Christopher	Black	Male	Biology	5’10”	Lots
Sonya	Brown	Female	Psychology	5’4”	Little

Can you conduct statistical analyses on the above data or must you re-code it in some way? For example, how would you go about computing the averageheight of the 5 students. You cannot enter students’ heights in their current form into a statistical program -- the computer would probably give you an error message because it does not understand notation such as 5’4”. One solution is to change all the numbers to inches. So, 5’4” becomes (5 x 12 ) + 4 = 64, and 6’1” becomes (6 x 12 ) + 1 = 73, and so forth. In this way, you are converting height in feet and inches to simply height in inches. From there, it is very easy to ask a statistical program to calculate the mean height in inches for the 5 students.

You may ask, “Why not simply ask subjects to write their height in inches in the first place?” Well, the number one rule of data collection is to ask for information in such a way as it will be most accurately reported. Most people know their height in feet and inches and cannot quickly and accurately convert it into inches “on the fly.” So, in order to preserve data accuracy, it is best for researchers to make the necessary conversions.

Let’s take another example. Suppose you wanted to calculate the mean amount of computer experience for the five students shown in Table 1. One way would be to convert the verbal descriptions to numbers as shown in Table 2. Thus, "Very Little" would be converted to "1" and "Little" would be converted to "2."

Table 2. Conversion of verbal descriptions to numbers.

1	2	3	4	5
Very Little	Little	Moderate	Lots	Very Lots

Measurement Examples

Example #1: How much information should I record?

Say you are volunteering at a track meet at your college, and your job is to record each runner’s time as they pass the finish line for each race. Their times are shown in large red numbers on a digital clock with eight digits to the right of the decimal point, and you are told to record the entire number in your tablet. Thinking eight decimal places is a bit excessive, you only record runners’ times to one decimal place. The track meet begins, and runner number one finishes with a time of 22.93219780 seconds. You dutifully record her time in your tablet, but only to one decimal place, that is 22.9. Race number two finishes and you record 32.7 for the winning runner. The fastest time in Race number three is 25.6. Race number four winning time is 22.9, Race number five is…. But wait! You suddenly realize your mistake; you now have a tie between runner one and runner four for the title of Fastest Overall Runner! You should have recorded more information from the digital clock -- that information is now lost, and you cannot go back in time and record running times to more decimal places.

The point is that you should think very carefully about the scales and specificity of information needed in your research before you begin collecting data. If you believe you might need additional information later but are not sure, measure it; you can always decide to not use some of the data, or “collapse” your data down to lower scales if you wish, but you cannot expand your data set to include more information after the fact. In this example, you probably would not need to record eight digits to the right of the decimal point. But recording only one decimal digit is clearly too few.

Example #2

Pretend for a moment that you are teaching five children in middle school (yikes!), and you are trying to convince them that they must study more in order to earn better grades. To prove your point, you decide to collect actual data from their recent math exams, and, toward this end, you develop a questionnaire to measure their study time and subsequent grades. You might develop a questionnaire which looks like the following:

1. Please write your name: ____________________________
2. Please indicate how much you studied for this math exam:
   a lot……………moderate……….…….little
3. Please circle the grade you received on the math exam:
   A  B  C  D  F

Given the above questionnaire, your obtained data might look like the following:

Name	Amount Studied	Grade
John	Little	C
Sally	Moderate	B
Alexander	Lots	A
Linda	Moderate	A
Thomas	Little	B

Eyeballing the data, it seems as if the children who studied more received better grades, but it’s difficult to tell. “Little,” “lots,” and “B,” are imprecise, qualitative terms. You could get more precise information by asking specifically how many hours they studied and their exact score on the exam. The data then might look as follows:

Name	Hours studied	% Correct
John	5	71
Sally	9	83
Alexander	13	97
Linda	12	91
Thomas	7	85

Of course, this assumes the students would know how many hours they studied. Rather than trust the students' memories, you might ask them to keep a log of their study time as they study.

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Basics of Data Collection

Basics of Data Collection

Most statistical analyses require that your data be in numerical rather than verbal form (you can’t punch letters into your calculator). Therefore, data collected in verbal form must be coded so that it is represented by numbers. To illustrate, consider the data in Table 1.

Table 1. Example Data

Student Name	Hair Color	Gender	Major	Height	ComputerExperience
Norma	Brown	Female	Psychology	5’4”	Lots
Amber	Blonde	Female	Social Science	5’7”	Very little
Paul	Blonde	Male	History	6’1”	Moderate
Christopher	Black	Male	Biology	5’10”	Lots
Sonya	Brown	Female	Psychology	5’4”	Little

Can you conduct statistical analyses on the above data or must you re-code it in some way? For example, how would you go about computing the averageheight of the 5 students. You cannot enter students’ heights in their current form into a statistical program -- the computer would probably give you an error message because it does not understand notation such as 5’4”. One solution is to change all the numbers to inches. So, 5’4” becomes (5 x 12 ) + 4 = 64, and 6’1” becomes (6 x 12 ) + 1 = 73, and so forth. In this way, you are converting height in feet and inches to simply height in inches. From there, it is very easy to ask a statistical program to calculate the mean height in inches for the 5 students.

You may ask, “Why not simply ask subjects to write their height in inches in the first place?” Well, the number one rule of data collection is to ask for information in such a way as it will be most accurately reported. Most people know their height in feet and inches and cannot quickly and accurately convert it into inches “on the fly.” So, in order to preserve data accuracy, it is best for researchers to make the necessary conversions.

Let’s take another example. Suppose you wanted to calculate the mean amount of computer experience for the five students shown in Table 1. One way would be to convert the verbal descriptions to numbers as shown in Table 2. Thus, "Very Little" would be converted to "1" and "Little" would be converted to "2."

Table 2. Conversion of verbal descriptions to numbers.

1	2	3	4	5
Very Little	Little	Moderate	Lots	Very Lots

Measurement Examples

Example #1: How much information should I record?

Say you are volunteering at a track meet at your college, and your job is to record each runner’s time as they pass the finish line for each race. Their times are shown in large red numbers on a digital clock with eight digits to the right of the decimal point, and you are told to record the entire number in your tablet. Thinking eight decimal places is a bit excessive, you only record runners’ times to one decimal place. The track meet begins, and runner number one finishes with a time of 22.93219780 seconds. You dutifully record her time in your tablet, but only to one decimal place, that is 22.9. Race number two finishes and you record 32.7 for the winning runner. The fastest time in Race number three is 25.6. Race number four winning time is 22.9, Race number five is…. But wait! You suddenly realize your mistake; you now have a tie between runner one and runner four for the title of Fastest Overall Runner! You should have recorded more information from the digital clock -- that information is now lost, and you cannot go back in time and record running times to more decimal places.

The point is that you should think very carefully about the scales and specificity of information needed in your research before you begin collecting data. If you believe you might need additional information later but are not sure, measure it; you can always decide to not use some of the data, or “collapse” your data down to lower scales if you wish, but you cannot expand your data set to include more information after the fact. In this example, you probably would not need to record eight digits to the right of the decimal point. But recording only one decimal digit is clearly too few.

Example #2

Pretend for a moment that you are teaching five children in middle school (yikes!), and you are trying to convince them that they must study more in order to earn better grades. To prove your point, you decide to collect actual data from their recent math exams, and, toward this end, you develop a questionnaire to measure their study time and subsequent grades. You might develop a questionnaire which looks like the following:

1. Please write your name: ____________________________
2. Please indicate how much you studied for this math exam:
   a lot……………moderate……….…….little
3. Please circle the grade you received on the math exam:
   A  B  C  D  F

Given the above questionnaire, your obtained data might look like the following:

Name	Amount Studied	Grade
John	Little	C
Sally	Moderate	B
Alexander	Lots	A
Linda	Moderate	A
Thomas	Little	B

Eyeballing the data, it seems as if the children who studied more received better grades, but it’s difficult to tell. “Little,” “lots,” and “B,” are imprecise, qualitative terms. You could get more precise information by asking specifically how many hours they studied and their exact score on the exam. The data then might look as follows:

Name	Hours studied	% Correct
John	5	71
Sally	9	83
Alexander	13	97
Linda	12	91
Thomas	7	85

Of course, this assumes the students would know how many hours they studied. Rather than trust the students' memories, you might ask them to keep a log of their study time as they study.

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Instruments used in Surveying....FORM THREE

  Instruments used in Surveying

                                    Instruments Used for Measuring Distance:

1. Chain 

a.  Metric chain

b.  Steel band chain

c.   Günter’s Chain

d.  Revenue Chain

e.  Engineers chain

2. Arrows (chain pins)

3. Tapes

a.  Cloth or linen Tape

b.  Metric Woven Metallic Tape

c.   Metric steel Tape

d.  Invar tape.

e.  Synthetic Tape.

f.    Wooden pegs.

5. Ranging Road.

6. Ranging Poles.

7. Offset Rod.

8. Laths

9. Whites

10. Plumb Bob

1. Chain

The chain is composed of 100 or 150 pieces of galvanized mild steel wire 4mm in diameter called links. The end pf each link are bent into a loop and connected together by means of three oval rings. The ends of the chain are provided with brass handles for dragging the chain on the ground. The length of link is the distance between the centers of the two consecutive middle rings. The end links includes the handles. Metallic tags or indicators are fixed at various distinctive of the chain to facilitate quick reading.

a. Metric surveying chains:

The chains are made in lengths of 20 and 30 meters. To enable the reading of factious of a chain, tallies (tags) are fixed at every five meter length and small brass rings are provided at every meter length. To facilitate holding of the arrows in position with the handle, a groove is cut on the out side surface of the handle. The handle joints are flexible. the tallies used for marking the distances in a metric chain are marked with letters ‘Me’ and ‘m’.

b. Steel Band Chain:

It consists of a ribbon of steel with bras handle at each end. It is 20 or 30long and 16 mm wide. It is wound on an open steel cross or on the metal reel in a closed case. The graduations are etched as meters decimeters, centimeters on one side and 0.2 m links on the other. Brass tallies are fixed at every 5 m length of the band.

c. Günter’s Chain:

It is 66 fit long and is divided into 100 links. Each link is 0.66 ft long. It is very convenient for measuring distance in miles and furlongs. Also for measuring area and when the units of area is an acre

d. Revenue Chain:

It is commonly used for measuring fields in cadastral survey. It is 33 ft long and divided into 16 links. Each link is 2.0625 ft long.

e. Engineer’s chain:

It is 100 ft long and it is divided into 100 links. Each link is 1 ft in a length. Used in all Engineering surveys.

2. Arrows (chain pins):

They are also called as marking or chaining pins and are used to mark the end of chain during the process of chaining. They are made up of good quality hardened and tempered steel wire of 4mm in diameter. The arrows are made 400 mm in length. They are pointed at one end of inserting in to the ground. The other end is in to a ring.

3. Tapes:

a. Cloth or Linen Tape:

Used for taking subsidiary measurements, such as offset. It is very light and handy. It is easily affected by damp. If wet it shrinks. It stretches easily and likely to twist.

b. Metric Woven Metallic Tape:

They are available in 2, 10, 30, and 50 meters. The tape is made of yarn and metal wire. A metal ring is attached to the outer end of tapes. The length of the tape includes the metal ring. At every centimeter a black line 8 to 10 mm in height is drown. Every 5 centimeters is marked with an arrow in black. Every decimeter and meter is marked with a back line extending over the full width of the tape/ the graduation marks at every decimeter and meter are numbered with black and red figures, respectively.

c. Metric Steel Tape:

Tape is available in 1, 2, 10, 30, and 50 meters. The tape is of steel or stainless steel. The outer end is provided with a ring. The length of the tape includes the metal ring. The tape is marked with a line at every five millimeters, centimeters, decimeters, and meter. Every decimeter and meter shall be marked with Hindu Arabic numerals in bold. When the button release devised is pressed, the tape automatically rewind in to the case.

d. Invar Tape:

For highest precision work the invar tape in used. It is made of an alloy of steel and nickel (36%).

It is 6 mm wide and may be obtained in length of 30m and 100m. It is not calibrated through its length but has terminal lines. Each terminal division has ten 1 mm division. It is very expensive.

e. Synthetic Tape:

The tapes are manufactured of glass glass fiber having PVC coating. They are graduated every 10 mm and figured every 100 mm. Meter, figures are shown in red. They are convenient for measuring shorts lengths.

Instruments for marking stations:

1. Wooden Pegs:

These are used to mark the positions. They are made of hard timber and tapered at one end. They are usually, 2.5 cm square and 15 cm long. But in soft ground 40 to 60 cm long and 4 to 5 cm square is suitable. They should be driven in the ground with about 4 cm lengths, projecting above the ground.

2. Ranging rods:

Used for making the positions of stations and for ranging. They are made of seasoned timber of teak, blue pine, sisov or deodar. They are circular or octagonal in cross section of 3 cm diameter. Lower shoe is 15 cm long. They are made in two sizes as 2 meters and 3 meters and are divided in to equal parts each 0.2 m long. They are painted alternatively black and white or red and white. Now a day instead of timber, mild steel hallo pipes are used.

3. Ranging Poles:

Similar to the ranging rods but are heavier, they vary in length from 4 m to 6 m or more. Used in the case of very long lines.

4. Offset Rod:

Similar to the ranging rod, they are usually 3 m long and is divided into parts each 0.2 m length. Top is an provided with an open ring for puling or pushing the chain through a hedge. It has two short narrow vertical slots. It is used for aligning short offsets.

5. Laths:

Useful for ranging long lines, also used over uneven ground where the ranging rod is not visible due to obstructions, they are light, cheap, being white; they are easily visible at a great distance. Unusually 1.0m long

6. Whites:

When the ranging rod is not available or insufficient, whites are used. These are thin strip of bamboo and 40 cm to 1 m in length. One end is sharp and the other end is split for inserting pieces of white papers. They are also useful for temporary marking of counter points.

7. Plumb Bob:

The plumb bob is required when measuring the distance along slopes in order to transfer points to the ground. It is also used for testing the verticality of ranging poles.

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