ENGLISH......(.PRONOUN)

PRONOUN

KINDS OF PRONOUNS 


 ( OPEN THESE LINK ) 


     : 
Personal...................OPEN LINK
 Demonstrative........OPEN LINK
Indefinite................OPEN LINK
 Relative...................OPEN LINK
  Reflexive.................OPEN LINK
  Intensive................OPEN LINK
 Interrogative...........OPEN LINK
 Reciprocal.............OPEN LINK


Definition

Generally (but not always) pronouns stand for (pro + noun) or refer to a noun, an individual or individuals or thing or things (the pronoun's antecedent) whose identity is made clear earlier in the text. For instance, we are bewildered by writers who claim something like

• They say that eating beef is bad for you.

They is a pronoun referring to someone, but who are they? Cows? whom do they represent? Sloppy use of pronouns is unfair.

Not all pronouns will refer to an antecedent, however.

• Everyone here earns over a thousand dollars a day.

The word "everyone" has no antecedent.

The problem of agreement between a pronoun and its antecedent and between a pronoun and its verb is treated in another section on Pronoun-Antecedent Consistency. The quizzes on pronoun usage are also listed at the end of that section.

This section will list and briefly describe the several kinds of pronouns.

KINDS OF PRONOUNS        ( OPEN THESE LINK )      : 
Personal...................OPEN LINK
 Demonstrative........OPEN LINK
Indefinite................OPEN LINK
 Relative...................OPEN LINK
  Reflexive.................OPEN LINK
  Intensive................OPEN LINK
 Interrogative...........OPEN LINK
 Reciprocal.............OPEN LINK

Personal Pronouns

Unlike English nouns, which usually do not change form except for the addition of an -s ending to create the plural or the apostrophe + s to create the possessive, personal pronouns (which stand for persons or things) change form according to their various uses within a sentence. Thus I is used as the subject of a sentence (I am happy.), me is used as an object in various ways (He hit me. He gave me a book. Do this for me.), and my is used as the possessive form (That's my car.) The same is true of the other personal pronouns: the singular you and he/she/it and the plural we, you, and they. These forms are called cases. An easily printable chart is available that shows the various Cases of the Personal Pronouns.

Personal pronouns can also be characterized or distinguished by person. First person refers to the speaker(s) or writer(s) ("I" for singular, "we" for plural). Second person refers to the person or people being spoken or written to ("you" for both singular and plural). Third person refers to the person or people being spoken or written about ("he," "she," and "it" for singular, "they" for plural). The person of a pronoun is also demonstrated in the chart Cases of the Personal Pronouns. As you will see there, each person can change form, reflecting its use within a sentence. Thus, "I" becomes "me" when used as an object ("She left me") and "my" when used in its possessive role (That's my car"); "they" becomes "them" in object form ("I like them") and "their" in possessive ("That's just their way").

When a personal pronoun is connected by a conjunction to another noun or pronoun, its case does not change. We would write "I am taking a course in Asian history"; if Talitha is also taking that course, we would write "Talitha and I are taking a course in Asian history." (Notice that Talitha gets listed before "I" does. This is one of the few ways in which English is a "polite" language.) The same is true when the object form is called for: "Professor Vendetti gave all her books to me"; if Talitha also received some books, we'd 

When a pronoun and a noun are combined (which will happen with the plural first- and second-person pronouns), choose the case of the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were not there.

• We students are demanding that the administration give us two hours for lunch.
• The administration has managed to put us students in a bad situation.

With the second person, we don't really have a problem because the subject form is the same as the object form, "you":

• "You students are demanding too much."
• "We expect you students to behave like adults."

Among the possessive pronoun forms, there is also what is called the nominative possessive: mine, yours, ours, theirs.

• Look at those cars. Theirs is really ugly; ours is beautiful.
• This new car is mine.
• Mine is newer than yours.

Demonstrative Pronouns

The family of demonstratives (this/that/these/those/such) can behave either as pronouns or as determiners.

As pronouns, they identify or point to nouns.

• That is incredible! (referring to something you just saw)
• I will never forget this. (referring to a recent experience)
• Such is my belief. (referring to an explanation just made)

As determiners, the demonstratives adjectivally modify a noun that follows. A sense of relative distance (in time and space) can be conveyed through the choice of these pronouns/determiners:

• These [pancakes sitting here now on my plate] are delicious.
• Those [pancakes that I had yesterday morning] were even better.
• This [book in my hand] is well written;
• that [book that I'm pointing to, over there, on the table] is trash.

A sense of emotional distance or even disdain can be conveyed with the demonstrative pronouns:

• You're going to wear these?
• This is the best you can do?

Pronouns used in this way would receive special stress in a spoken sentence.

When used as subjects, the demonstratives, in either singular or plural form, can be used to refer to objects as well as persons.

• This is my father.
• That is my book.

In other roles, however, the reference of demonstratives is non-personal. In other words, when referring to students, say, we could write "Those were loitering near the entrance during the fire drill" (as long as it is perfectly clear in context what "those" refers to). But we would not write "The principal suspended those for two days"; instead, we would have to use "those" as a determiner and write "The principal suspended those students for two days."

Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns (The student who studies hardest usually does the best.). The word who connects or relates the subject, student, to the verb within the dependent clause (studies). Choosing correctly between which and that and between who and whom leads to what are probably the most Frequently Asked Questions about English grammar. For help with which/that, refer to the Notorious Confusables article on those words (including the hyperlink to Michael Quinion's article on this usage and the links to relevant quizzes). Generally, we use "which" to introduce clauses that are parenthetical in nature (i.e., that can be removed from the sentence without changing the essential meaning of the sentence). For that reason, a "which clause" is often set off with a comma or a pair of commas. "That clauses," on the other hand, are usually deemed indispensable for the meaning of a sentence and are not set off with commas. The pronoun which refers to things; who (and its forms) refers to people; that usually refers to things, but it can also refer to people in a general kind of way. For help with who/whom refer to the section on Consistency. We also recommend that you take the quizzes on the use of who and whom at the end of that section.

The expanded form of the relative pronouns — whoever, whomever, whatever — are known as indefinite relative pronouns. A couple of sample sentences should suffice to demonstrate why they are called "indefinite":

• The coach will select whomever he pleases.
• He seemed to say whatever came to mind.
• Whoever crosses this line first will win the race.

What is often an indefinite relative pronoun:

• She will tell you what you need to know.

Indefinite Pronouns

The indefinite pronouns (everybody/anybody/somebody/all/each/every/some/none/one) do not substitute for specific nouns but function themselves as nouns (Everyone is wondering if any is left.)

One of the chief difficulties we have with the indefinite pronouns lies in the fact that "everybody" feels as though it refers to more than one person, but it takes a singular verb. (Everybody is accounted for.) If you think of this word as meaning "every single body," the confusion usually disappears. The indefinite pronoun none can be either singular or plural, depending on its context. None is nearly always plural (meaning "not any") except when something else in the sentence makes us regard it as a singular (meaning "not one"), as in "None of the food is fresh." Some can be singular or plural depending on whether it refers to something countable or noncountable. Refer to the section on Pronoun Consistency for help on determining the number of the indefinite pronouns (and the number [singular/plural] of the verbs that accompany them). There is a separate section on the uses of the pronoun one.

There are other indefinite pronouns, words that double as Determiners:

enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, several, more, most, all, both, every, each, any, either, neither, none, some

• Few will be chosen; fewer will finish.
• Little is expected.

See the section on Pronoun Consistency for help in determining the number (singular/plural) characteristics of these pronouns.

Intensive Pronouns

The intensive pronouns (such as myself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves) consist of a personal pronoun plus self or selves and emphasize a noun. (I myself don't know the answer.) It is possible (but rather unusual) for an intensive pronoun to precede the noun it refers to. (Myself, I don't believe a word he says.)

Reflexive Pronouns

The reflexive pronouns (which have the same forms as the intensive pronouns) indicate that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb. (Students who cheat on this quiz are only hurting themselves. You paid yourself a million dollars? She encouraged herself to do well.) What this means is that whenever there is a reflexive pronoun in a sentence there must be a person to whom that pronoun can "reflect." In other words, the sentence "Please hand that book to myself" would be incorrect because there is no "I" in that sentence for the "myself" to reflect to (and we would use "me" instead of "myself"). A sentence such as "I gave that book to myself for Christmas" might be silly, but it would be correct.

Be alert to a tendency to use reflexive pronoun forms (ending in -self) where they are neither appropriate nor necessary. The inappropriate reflexive form has a wonderful name: the untriggered reflexive. "Myself" tends to sound weightier, more formal, than little ol' me or I, so it has a way of sneaking into sentences where it doesn't belong.

• Bob and myself I are responsible for this decision.
• These decisions will be made by myself me.
• If you have any questions, please contact myself me or Bob Jones.

When pronouns are combined, the reflexive will take either the first person

• Juanita, Carlos, and I have deceived ourselves into believing in my uncle.

or, when there is no first person, the second person:

• You and Carlos have deceived yourselves.

The indefinite pronoun (see above) one has its own reflexive form ("One must have faith in oneself."), but the other indefinite pronouns use either himself or themselves as reflexives. (There is an entire page on the pronoun one.) It is probably better to pluralize and avoid the clumsy himself or herself construction.

• No one here can blame himself or herself.
• The people here cannot blame themselves.

Interrogative Pronouns

The interrogative pronouns (who/which/what) introduce questions. (What is that? Who will help me? Which do you prefer?) Which is generally used with more specific reference than what. If we're taking a quiz and I ask "Which questions give you the most trouble?", I am referring to specific questions on that quiz. If I ask "What questions give you most trouble"? I could be asking what kind of questions on that quiz (or what kind of question, generically, in general) gives you trouble. The interrogative pronouns also act as Determiners: It doesn't matter which beer you buy. He doesn't know whose car he hit. In this determiner role, they are sometimes called interrogative adjectives.

Like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns introduce noun clauses, and like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns play a subject role in the clauses they introduce:

• We know who is guilty of this crime.
• I already told the detective what I know about it.

Reciprocal Pronouns

The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They are convenient forms for combining ideas. If Bob gave Alicia a book for Christmas and Alicia gave Bob a book for Christmas, we can say that they gave each other books (or that they gave books to each other).

• My mother and I give each other a hard time.

If more than two people are involved (let's say a whole book club), we would say that they gave one another books. This rule (if it is one) should be applied circumspectly. It's quite possible for the exchange of books within this book club, for example, to be between individuals, making "each other" just as appropriate as "one another."

Reciprocal pronouns can also take possessive forms:

• They borrowed each other's ideas.
• The scientists in this lab often use one another's equipment.

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CONDITIONAL SENTENCES...FORM FOUR

      conditional sentences type one

example

1) If I ......................... (to study), I...............................  (to pass) the exams.

                                         answer

if i study i will pass the exams

                                                          

2) If the sun....................  (to shine), we ............................... (to walk) to the town.

3) If he............................  (to have) a temperature, he.........................  (to see) the doctor.

4) If my friends..................  (to come), I ........................ (to be) very happy.

5) If she......................  (to earn) a lot of money, she ......................... (to fly) to New York.

6) If we ............... (to travel) to London, we..........................  (to visit) the museums.

7) If you ................... (to wear) sandals in the mountains, you  .....................(to slip) on the rocks.

8) If Rita .................... (to forget) her homework, the teacher........................  (to give) her a low mark.

9) If they.......................  (to go) to the disco, they ...................... (to listen) to loud music.

10) If you....................  (to wait) a minute, I .............. (to ask) my parents.

conditional sentences type two

example

1) If I .......... (to come) home earlier, I .................. (to prepare) dinner

                              answer

If I came home earlier, I would prepare dinner.

.

2) If we  .................(to live) in Rome, Francesco ............................ (to visit) us.

3) If Tim and Tom ................. (to be) older, they ........................ (to play) in our hockey team.

4) If he ................. (to be) my friend, I .................... (to invite) him to my birthday party.

5) If Susan .............. (to study) harder, she.................  (to be) better at school.

6) If they ................ (to have) enough money, they  ....................(to buy) a new car.

7) If you  ................(to do) a paper round, you  .................(to earn) a little extra money.

8) If Michael................  (to get) more pocket money, he...............  (to ask) Doris out for dinner.

9) If we...........  (to hurry), we................  (to catch) the bus.

10) If it .......... (to rain), Nina....................  (to take) an umbrella with her.

conditional sentences type  three

example

1) If the weather ........... (to be) nice, they.............  (to play) football.

                         answer

  If the weather had been nice, they would have played football.

2) If we ................... (to go) to a good restaurant, we................... (to have) a better dinner.

3) If John.........................  (to learn) more words, he.....................  (to write) a good report.

4) If the boys........................  (to take) the bus to school, they................  (to arrive) on time.

5) If the teacher................  (to explain) the homework, I ....................... (to do) it.

6) If they ................... (to wait) for another 10 minutes, they..................  (to see) the pop star.

                              ANSWERS   

conditional sentences type one.....answers

1) If I study, I will pass the exams.

2) If the sun shines, we will walk to the town

3) If he has a temperature, he will see the doctor.

4) If my friends come, I will be very happy.

5) If she earns a lot of money, she will fly to New York.

6) If we travel to London, we will visit the museums.

7) If you wear sandals in the mountains, you will slip on the rocks.

8) If Rita forgets her homework, the teacher will give her a low mark.

9) If they go to the disco, they will listen to loud music.

10) If you wait a minute, I will ask my parents.

conditional sentences type two.....answers

1) If I came home earlier, I would prepare dinner.

2) If we lived in Rome, Francesco would visit us.

3) If Tim and Tom were older, they would play in our hockey team.

4) If he was my friend, I would invite him to my birthday party.

5) If Susan studied harder, she would be better at school.

6) If they had enough money, they would buy a new car.

7) If you did a paper round, you would earn a little extra money.

8) If Michael got more pocket money, he would ask Doris out for dinner.

9) If we hurried, we would catch the bus.

10) If it rained, Nina would take an umbrella with her.

        conditional sentences type three.....answers

1) If the weather had been nice, they would have played football.

2) If we had gone to a good restaurant, we would have had a better dinner.

3) If John had learned more words, he would have written a good report.

4) If the boys had taken the bus to school, they would have arrived on time.

5) If the teacher had explained the homework, I would have done it.

6) If they had waited for another 10 minutes, they would have seen the pop star.

ANSWERS

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH EXERCISE

                                                                        Reported questions  with answers - Exercise 1

Explanation: Reported questions

Finish the sentences using Reported speech. Always change the tense, although it is sometimes not necessary.

 for example:

1) Christopher: "Do you want to dance?"

Christopher asked me if I wanted to dance.

2) Betty: "When did you come?"

Betty wanted to know ………………………………………………………………………………………….

3) Mark: "Has John arrived?"

Mark asked me …………………………………………………………………………………………………...

4) Ronald: "Where does Maria park her car?"

Ronald asked me ………………………………………………………………………………………………..

5) Elisabeth: "Did you watch the latest film?"

Elisabeth asked me ……………………………………………………………………………………………..

6) Mandy: "Can I help you?"

Mandy wanted to know if …………………………………………………………………………………….

7) Andrew: "Will Mandy have lunch with Sue?"

Andrew asked me ………………………………………………………………………………………………..

8) Justin: "What are you doing?"

Justin asked me ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

9) Frank: "How much pocket money does Lisa get?"

Frank wanted to know…………………………………………………………………………………………. .

10) Anne: "Must I do the shopping?"

Anne asked …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ANSWERS

2) Betty:"When did you come?"

Betty wanted to know when I had come.

3) Mark:"Has John arrived?"

Mark asked me if John had arrived.

4) Ronald:"Where does Maria park her car?"

Ronald asked me where Maria parked her car.

5) Elisabeth:"Did you watch the latest film?"

Elisabeth asked me if I had watched the latest film.

6) Mandy:"Can I help you?"

Mandy wanted to know if she could help me.

7) Andrew:"Will Mandy have lunch with Sue?"

Andrew asked me if Mandy would have lunch with Sue.

8) Justin:"What are you doing?"

Justin asked me what I was doing.

9) Frank:"How much pocket money does Lisa get?"

Frank wanted to know how much pocket money Lisa got.

10) Anne:"Must I do the shopping?"

Anne asked if she had to do the shopping.

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Causes and Effects of Uncontrolled Urbanization

        Causes and Effects of Uncontrolled Urbanization

   

    If you are an urban dweller, you may know the real meaning of urbanization. However, this does not always indicate your sufficient insight in the “uncontrolled urbanization”  topic too. To form a causal chain, it is right to say that more jobs, more services in the urban side and absence of land in the countryside force people to migrate to larger cities which brings about uncontrolled urbanization. As a result, some problems arise such as unemployment,inadequacy of infrastructure/services and some environmentally unwanted events as well as unpleasant demographic incidents.

    To begin with, it is a good point to dig up the reasons for people to come to larger cities. First of all, by all accounts, cities are perceived to offer a wide variety of job opportunities on the grounds that there are very different branches of  businesses in cities. Inasmuch as unemployment level is hugely high in the rural areas and the work is only about farming in contrast to countless business sectors in chief cities, more and more people choose searching for their chances in the metropolis.

    Secondly, comes another significant reason: There are better services in cities. As a matter of fact, transportation is extremely developed so as to make use of time efficiently. Medical services are supported with the latest technological improvements, there are unbelievably modern hospitals. Besides, education is taken into account seriously. There are very high-quality schools with excellent teachers, teaching with up-to-date techniques. None of these can be found in the rural areas, at this stage.

    Apart from these pull factors causing migration to big cities, there is a strong push factor stemming from absence of enough land. It would be very hard and useless to cultivate the land if it is too small to make an agricultural production. One important thing triggers this incident increasingly during the last years; namely, division of land. To explain, in the rural areas when someone dies, the inheritance would usually be the land. Yet, the land is divided into many parts due to the fact that in the countryside it is common to have lots of children and they all have rights to take one part of the inherited land. Therefore, what they get are useless small lands rather than a gigantic land which is capable of making a great deal of agricultural production itself. The inability to do the only thing, farming, again brings about migration to big cities with the hopes of making money.

    As mentioned earlier, all these facts and figures necessitate uncontrolled urbanization, in the midst of the causal chain. So, what are the side effects and drawbacks of this growth?

    The first main problem is unemployment rate in the cities, no doubt. Imagine that a city with a population of 5 million people and everything is fine, everyone has work. Then, other citizens of the same country – especially from the rural areas –  see the opportunity to have a better life and migrate to this city. Another 1 million people may be OK, 2 million might be accepted due to newly created sectors; nevertheless, if another 5 million people come to this city, what will be the result? Excess unskilled labourers will certainly occupy everywhere.

There will be a dramatic rise in the unemployment level owing to the limited capacity of

workers. Looking from a different angle, since young adults come to cities before their

families, unemployment will reach a maximum point that is defined by the term “unable to cope with”.   

    The next shortcoming is, of course, inadequacy of infrastructure and services. This

uncontrollably growing kind of urbanization results in so much pressure on the infrastructure that no means of infrastructure can respond to any needs of urban life effectively. For instance, when there is a sudden rain, there would be floods all over the city, but in fact, there should not be by the help of regular working sewers and drainage. Garbage removal is another bad aspect as well as destroyed roads and the inconsistencies of the power supplies. Electricity and natural gases have innumerable problems as a consequence of this denial of service. Services sectors are also in deep trouble. There do not seem to be any noticeable investments in transportation; hence, it cannot meet the needs of city residents. For the expensiveness of highly equipped private hospitals, urban crowds choose the state hospitals mostly and this leads to very long queues indeed. As a result, people cannot get a good examination in medical centers. Education is also badly hurt; because, children are made to receive education in incredibly crowded classrooms such as 60-80 students in one classroom.As you see, the teacher cannot show the same interest to every child and that drops the

learning level sharply in this so-called educational system.

 Within this type of urbanization, some unwanted events occur, specifically environmental e.g. pollution and deforestation. Factories and motor vehicles pump large quantities of carbon dioxide and other waste gases into the air. More vehicles mean more pollution. For example,the poisonous gases coming from the vehicles result in acid rain that damages trees, buildings and can kill fish in lakes and rivers. Rivers can also be polluted by industrial waste from factories. Deforestation, on the other hand, is very widespread in recent years; large areas have been destroyed, as the trees are cut down for wood or burned to clear the land for building universities, shopping centers, skyscrapers and so forth. It is not wrong to say that this unplanned urban growth influences accommodation in the form of illegal buildings by ruining the nature and natural beauties.

    The last impact is about unpleasant demographic results. At this point i.e. the last ring of the overall causal chain, there is a mini chain relevant to demography. When the uncontrolled urbanization occurs, the most noticeable effect is overpopulation in chief cities. In the meantime, this flow causes depopulation in the rural areas. Subsequently, this contributes to a decrease in agricultural production. Besides, there are a lot of crises in the urban side, there is an economic one in the countryside too. It is appropriate to give this incident as an example for lose-lose principle if two sides are considered opposites.

    In conclusion, uncontrolled urbanization is a very deep subject existing in the middle of a causal chain with causes; for example, more job opportunities and better services in urban life in contrast to absence of land in the rural areas and effects; such as unemployment, insufficiency of infrastructure, unwanted environmental events and unpleasant demographic theories. In the right hands, urbanization can determine or at least influence the destiny of a city and may be a turning point for its existence and optimistic future, whereas in unstable and unplanned conditions, urbanization creates nothing but a real mess. Therefore, migrants to an uncontrolled urban side may meet the worst disappointments in their lives instead of hopes of making easy money; because, it is not perpetually true that “Roads are paved with gold.”, especially in today’s world…

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 Mehmet ÇELEBİ ADV-I 2004

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